JOURNAL
)F THE
^lOMRAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
, .^RIL 2000
Vol. 97 (1)
/
.... V
M.R. ALMEIDA
BOARD OF EDITORS
Editor
J.C. DANIEL
AJITH KUMAR
M.K. CHANDRASHEKARAN
T.C. NARENDRAN
B.F. CHHAPGAR
A.R. RAHMANI
R. GADAGKAR
J.S. SINGH
INDRANEIL DAS
R. WHITAKER
A.J.T. JOHNSINGH
^ -
Assistant Editor
GAYATRI WATTAL UGRA
>
INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS
1. Papers which have been published or have been offered for publication elsewhere
should not be submitted.
2. Papers should be submitted in duplicate, typed double space. Preferably an additional
copy should be submitted on a floppy diskette (3.5") using Word Star.
3. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification has
been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collected.
4. Photographs for reproduction must be clear, with good contrast. Prints should be at
least 9 x 12 cm and on glossy glazed paper. Text-figures, line drawings and maps
should be in Indian ink, preferably on tracing paper. Maps and figures will not be
acceptable if labelled free hand.
5. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabetically
arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals in
italics and titles of books or papers in roman type, thus:
Aluri, Raju J.S. & C. Subha Reddi (1995): Ecology of the pollination in two cat-mint
species. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(1): 63-66.
Prater, S.H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History Society,
Mumbai, pp. 35-48.
6. Each paper should be accompanied by an abstract, normally not exceeding 200
words, and 6-8 keywords. Keywords should include the scientific names of important
species discussed.
7. 25 reprints will be supplied free of cost to authors of main articles. In the case of
new descriptions, reviews and miscellaneous notes, authors will be sent a free
copy of the Journal.
8. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a member’s
contribution earlier than a non-member’s.
Hornbill House,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,
Mumbai-400 023.
Editors,
Journal of the Bombay
Natural History Society
POPULATION DENSITIES OF THE BLACKNAPED PlARE LEPUS NIGRICOLLJS
NIGR1COLLIS AT ROLLAPADU WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, KURNOOL
DISTRICT, ANDHRA PRADESH
( With six text-figures )
By Ranjit Manakadan and Asad Rafi Rahmani 3
BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE MALABAR GREY HORNBILL ( OCYCEROS G RISE US )
IN SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS, INDIA
(With one text-figure)
By Divya Mudappa 15
SOCIOECONOMIC TRANSITION AND WILDLIFE CONSERVATION IN THE INDIAN
TRANS-HIMALAYA
By Charudutt Mishra 25
AN ECOLOGICAL STUDY OF CROCODILES IN RUHUNA NATIONAL PARK,
SRI LANKA
( With three text-figures)
By Charles Santiapillai, Mangala de Silva, Sarath Dissanayake, B.V.R. Jayaratne
and S. Wijeyamohan 33
SEXUAL HARASSMENT AMONG FEMALE LION-TAILED MACAQUES (MAC AC A
SILENVS) IN THE WILD
( With three text-figures)
By Ajith Kumar 42
SEASONAL CHANGES OF TROPICAL FOREST BIRDS IN THE SOUTHERN
WESTERN GHATS
( With seven text-figures)
By E.A. Jayson and D.N. Mathew 52
PLODIA INTERPUNCTELLA (HUBNER) (PHYCITIDAE : LEPIDOPTERA) AS A
POTENTIAL PEST OF DRY FRUITS
By S.P. Rad, H.R. Pajni and Neelima Talwar 62
FRESHWATER CLADOCERA (CRUSTACEA : BRANCHIOPODA) OF THE
ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS
( With one text-figure)
By K. Venkataraman 67
LONGICORN BEETLES (CERAMBYCINAE, PRIONINAE : CERAMBYCIDAE) OF
BUXA TIGER RESERVE, JALPAIGURI, WEST BENGAL
( With twelve text-figures)
By Dinendra Raychaudhuri and Sumana Saha 74
FISHES OF THE CYPRINID GENUS SEMIPLOTUS BLEEKER 1859, WITH
DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES FROM MANIPUR, INDIA
( With one text-figure and one plate)
By Waikhom Vishwanath and Laishram Kosygin 92
FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF INDIAN BARBETS, MEGALAIMA SPP.
( With three text-figures)
By Hafiz S.A. Yahya
103
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
SPINY EELS OF THE GENUS MACROGNATHUS LACEPEDE FROM MANIPUR,
WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES
( With four text-figures )
By L. Arunkumar and H. Tombi Singh 117
THREE NEW GENERA OF WHITEFLIES M OH A NA S UN DA RA MI ELLA , SHANTHINIAE
AND V A SA NTH A RAJ I ELLA (ALEYRODIDAE : HOMOPTERA) FROM INDIA
( With three text-figures)
By P. Manidurai Manoharan David 123
LYSIONOTUS PALINENSIS — A NEW SPECIES OF GESNERIACEAE FROM
ARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA
( With one text-figure)
By G.D. Pal 131
REVIEWS
1 . BIRDS OF NEPAL: FIELD ECOLOGY, NATURAL HISTORY AND
CONSERVATION
Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 133
2. BIOGEOGRAPHY OF THE REPTILES OF SOUTH ASIA
Reviewed by Meghana Gavand 133
3. MOSSES OF KH AND ALA AND MAHABALESHWAR IN THE WESTERN
GHATS, INDIA
Reviewed by P.K.K. Nair 134
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
MAMMALS
1 . Instances of fruit bat mobbing the barn owl
By Sunil Zaveri 136
2. Possible occurrence of the lesser woolly
horseshoe bat ( Rhinolophus beddomei) in
Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary
By Kumaran Sathasivam 136
3. Dead snow leopard Uncia uncici at Yabuk,
Dongkung (5500 m) in north Sikkim
By Usha Ganguli-Lachungpa 137
4. On the longevity of the tiger {Panther a tigris)
in captivity
By L.N. Acharjyo, B.C. Prusty and
S.K. Patnaik 138
5. Sighting of barking deer ( Muntiacus muntjac)
in Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve,
Tamil Nadu
By Jayanti Ray, Justus Joshua and
J. Ronald 139
6. Type specimens of mammals in the collections
of the Bombay Natural History Society
By Meghana Gavand and Naresh Chaturvedi 1 40
AVES
7. Night herons and little cormorants in Thrissur,
Kerala
By Leela Madhavan 142
8. Grey heron wresting fish from herringgull
By Lavkumar Khacher 142
9. Additional site records of black stork Ciconia
nigra (Linn.) in Andhra Pradesh
By V. Vasudeva Rao. V. Nagulu and
C. Srinivasulu 143
10. Stealing of redwattled lapwing Vanellus
indicus (Boddaert) and yellow-wattled
lapwing Vanellus malabaricus (Boddaert)
eggs by cowherds
By K. V. Srini vas and S. Subramanya 143
11. A note on the feeding of lesser coucal
{Centropus toulou)
BySamiranJha 144
12. Occurrence of the yellowbrowed bulbul
Hypsipetes indicus (Jerdon) in the Nalamalla
Hills, Andhra Pradesh
By Srinivasulu and V. Vasudeva Rao 144
13. Termite attack on nest material leading to
desertion of eggs by birds
By K. V. Srini vas and S. Subramanya 145
14. Range extension of the purplerumped sunbird
Nectarinia zeylonica
By Lavkumar Khacher 146
15. Water acquisition strategy adopted by
goldfinch ( Carduelis carduelis)
By R. Suresh Kumar 147
REPTILES
16. Occurrence of draco or flying lizard Draco
dussumieri in Chittoor district, Andhra
Pradesh
By S. Balachandran and Aasheesh Pittie 1 47
1 7. Occurrence of yellow-bellied Pelamis platurus
(Linn.) Reptilia : Hydrophidae, in coastal
waters off Digha, West Bengal
By S. Mitra, J. Sarkar and T.K. Chatterjee .. 148
AMPHIBIA
1 8. A record audio feat by an anuran
By Sanjeev B. Nalavade 149
FISHES
19. Range extension of Pangio goaensis
(Cyprini formes : Cobitidae) to the Chaliyar
drainage of Kerala
By K. Rema Devi, K.G. Emiliyamma and
R.S. Lalmohan 150
20. Fishes of Nambiyar river, Kalakad-
Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu
By M. Arunachalam, A. Sankaranarayanan,
J.A. Johnson, A. Manimekalan, R. Soranam,
P.N. Shanthi and C. Vijaykumar 1 53
21 . A profile of the food and feeding of hillstream
teleosts ofGarhwal Himalayas
By N. Singh and R. Subbaraj 155
INSECTS
22. A supplementary list of the host-plants of
Indian Lepidoptera
By Peter Snietacek and Rajani Smetacek .... 157
23. On the predation of the Giant Redeye
Gangara thyrsis (Fabricius) (Family :
Hesperiidae; Order : Lepidoptera)
By S. Karthikeyan 160
24. Mating behaviour of the Common Mormon
Papilio polytes (Family : Papilionidae)
By Arnab Bose 160
OTHER INVERTEBRATES
25. Mycophagous arthropods from the Andaman
Islands
By Prashanth Mohanraj and K. Veenakumari 1 61
26. On Daphniopsis tibetana Sars, 1903,
(Cladocera) collected from a high altitude
Himalayan lake, India
By K. Venkataraman 162
BOTANY
27. fndigofera mysorensis Rottler ex DC.
(Leguminosae : Papilionoideae) — An endemic
species of Peninsular India from West Bengal
By S. Mitra, S. Bandyopadhyay and
A. K. Sarkar 165
28 . Range extension of Nepenthes khasiana i n the
Jaintia hills, Meghalaya
By Anwaruddin Choudhury 166
29. Scleria laxa R. Br. (Cyperaceae) - A new
record for India from Nicobar Islands
By P.V. Sreekumar 167
30. Rhaphidophora calophyllum Schott
(Araceae) — An addition to the flora of the
Andaman & Nicobar Islands
By K. Sasikala and E. Vajravelu 169
Cover photograph: Wild Tusker
Editorial
The problems facing the Asian elephant in India are a reflection of the state of environ-
mental conservation in India. As a species able to live in a wide spectrum of vegetational
types, the elephant acts as an indicator species of the condition of its biotic environment. A
sub-optimal habitat is unable to meet the demands made on it by a herd of elephants, whose
presence will result in further deterioration. Elephants in such habitats are compelled to
seek sustenance elsewhere, and come into conflict with man. At the present rate of habitat
loss, and degradation of existing habitats, it is doubtful if present populations can survive.
One has to consider seriously the possibility that the Asian elephant will be known mainly
as a domesticated animal in the 21st century.
In India, an enormous area of prime elephant habitat has been lost since 1 860, to the
plantations of coffee, tea, rubber and teak which were carved out of existing forests. After
1950, hydroelectric projects ravaged elephant habitat through the submerging of forests and
unscrupulous exploitation of the remnant forests. In central India, the forests holding elephants
cover the single largest deposit of iron-ore in Asia, and mining has been a continuing process
since 1909. The states of northeast India, which used to be the stronghold of the elephant in
India, are the areas where the main human-elephant conflict has developed. Exploding
human populations have destroyed crucial elephant habitat for cultivation and plantations,
extinguishing traditional migratory routes; and slash-and-burn cultivation has devastated
habitats, making unlikely the survival of the elephant in some of the states.
There is also the question of ivory poaching. Though not on as massive a scale as of
the African species, the selective removal of tuskers has played havoc in the sex ratio of
many populations. The elephant is an apex species, able by its size and its interaction with
its habitat, particularly in its quest for food, to influence the direction of development of its
biotic environment. It has been one of the causes for the process of change in its ecosystem.
Such a function is no longer acceptable in an environment managed by man, where the
process of change has been speeded up. The range of the elephant has, through the ages,
shrunk considerably. This process was accelerated, however, as the industrial revolution in
the latter half of the last century brought a mechanized commercial culture into the countries
of its occurrence. The tools used by man in a region decide its future, and the tools of an
alien culture, now in use for gathering natural resources for commerce and to meet the
needs of an ever-increasing human population, have destroyed a natural slow-moving
ecosystem. The elephant has become in the process too large an animal to find sustenance
and living room in the shrinking world of nature.
The conservation of the Asian elephant in Asia cannot be the concern of only the
forest departments and environmentalists. Conserving the elephant involves the conservation
of prime wildlife habitats. This needs a multidisciplinary effort, where the local people, the
administrators and land-use planners have to be involved at all levels. Conserving the
elephant, therefore, means conserving the human environment, and it has to be a part of the
development plans of each state of Asia as a whole. The Asian elephant is a part of the
culture of man in tropical Asia. It is an integral part of the religions of the region and one
hopes, will not be sacrificed in the search for a better life for the people of the region.
J.C. DANIEL
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology,
Govt, of India,
FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL.
JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
April 2000 Vol. 97 No. 1
POPULATION AND ECOLOGY OF THE INDIAN FOX VULPES BENGALENS1S
AT ROLLAPADU WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, ANDHRA PRADESH. INDIA1
Ranjit Manakadan and Asad Rafi Rahmani2
( With six text-figures)
Key words: Indian fox, Vulpes bengcilensis , Ardeotis nigriceps , population, diet,
breeding season, Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary, Andhra Pradesh
The population of the Indian fox Vulpes bengcilensis , its spatial and temporal abundances, den
distribution, characteristics and use, predation on eggs and chicks of the great Indian bustard
Ardeotis nigriceps , and general ecology were studied from February 1993 to April 1995 at the
Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary (RWS), Andhra Pradesh state, India. The population and spatial
abundance of the fox was estimated by enumeration and monitoring of dens, animal sightings at
den sites and from censuses.
The population of the fox at RWS was estimated to be around 40-50 adult animals in 1993 and
1994, which declined to about 10 animals in 1995 due to an epidemic. Densities of the fox were
significantly higher in the protected grasslands {0.65/40 ha ± 0.99 (S.D)} than unprotected
grasslands (0. 1 5/40 ha ± 0.49). A total of 1 35 dens (active and non-active), comprising of 33 'den
groups', were located in the study area. There was a concentration of dens in and around protected
grasslands. Den use by the Indian fox at RWS was confined to the pup rearing season (February
to June/July). We did not record any evidence of fox predation on bustard eggs and chicks.
increase after the establishment of the Sanctuary
in the early 1980s to protect the great Indian
bustard and its habitat (Manakadan and Rahmani
1989, 1993, 1997). The Indian fox is known to
be a predator of eggs and probably chicks of the
bustard (Rahmani and Manakadan 1987). This
was suspected to be one of the reasons for the
decreasing numbers of the great Indian bustard
at RWS over the years, in spite of good protection
to the bird and its habitat. We undertook this
study to estimate the population of the Indian
fox at RWS; compare its abundance in protected
and unprotected sites in the Sanctuary; assess
reasons for the differences in abundance between
sites (which could explain the increase in
Introduction
The Indian fox Vulpes bengcilensis is a
widespread species in India, ranging from the
foothills of the Himalayas to Kanyakumari
(Prater 1980). In spite of its wide distribution
and proximity to human habitation in many
areas, it has not been studied adequately
(Johnsingh 1978). The population of the Indian
fox in Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary (RWS),
Andhra Pradesh had undergone a remarkable
'Accepted April, 1999
2Bombay Natural History Society,
Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,
Mumbai 400023, Maharashtra, India.
JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1). APR. 2000
3
POPULATION AND ECOLOGY OF THE INDIAN FOX
4
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000
Fig. I : Location of fox dens in the study area
POPULA TIONAND ECOLOGY OF THE INDIAN FOX
populations over the years after protection);
investigate the role of the fox as a predator of
bustard eggs and chicks; and collect other
ecological information on the species.
Study Area
Rollapadu is 18 km southeast of
Nandikotkur (15°58' N lat. & 78° 18' E long.),
Kurnool dist., Andhra Pradesh. It lies in the
plains between the Nallamalai and Yerramalai
hills, at about 200 m above msl. The terrain is
gently undulating with predominantly poor red
soil. The region is semi-arid with an average
annual rainfall of 668 mm, received from both
the southwest (June to August) and northeast
(September to December) monsoon. Summer
(March to May) peaks at 42°C and winter
(November to February) is mild at 17° C.
Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary (area: 6.14
sq. km) was established in 1982, after the
"rediscovery’ of the great Indian bustard A rdeotis
nigriceps, and was declared a sanctuary in 1988.
The sanctuary proper consists primarily of three
grassland plots or enclosures: Enclosure-I (320
ha), about 500 m north of Rollapadu, and
Enclosure-II (40 ha) and III (120 ha), both about
1.5 km to the northeast of Rollapadu (Fig. 1).
These enclosures are demarcated by trench-cum-
mound (TCM) walls to exclude livestock and
people. However, Enclosure-Ill was opened to
grazing after protests by the locals about the lack
of grazing land for their livestock. The extent of
protection to Enclosure-II varied from year to
year during the study. The three enclosures are
separated from each other by grazing lands and
crop fields. Both the grazing lands and the
enclosures are predominantly grasslands, with
scrub dominated areas along streams.
The other major fauna of the Sanctuary
include the blackbuck Antilope cervicapra , wolf
Canis lupus, jackal Canis aureus, jungle cat Felis
chaus, common mongoose Herpestes edwardsi,
blacknaped hare Lepus nigricollis nigricollis,
common Indian monitor Varanus bengalensis
and lesser florican Sypheotides indica. The
grassland is a major roosting ground for harriers
(largely Circus pygargus and C. macrourus )
wintering in the Indian subcontinent. For more
details, see Rahmani and Manakadan (1986) and
Manakadan and Rahmani (1989, 1993 & 1997).
Methodology
Studies were conducted from February
1993 to April 1995, during daylight hours on
unmarked animals. Prior to the studies, we had
a fairly good idea of the population and
distribution of the fox in RWS from July 1992,
due to our field visits during other multi-
disciplinary studies of the project.
Population: A pilot survey was conducted
during the breeding season in 1993 to assess den
distribution in the study area. The survey was
concentrated in the three enclosures and grazing
lands adjoining them, to get an insight into the
breeding season, den characteristics and
distribution of the fox in the Sanctuary. Den
searches were more intensive during the breeding
season of 1994 and 1995. Searches in 1994 began
in February, when the dens located in 1993 were
found to have been dug up afresh, indicating the
start of the breeding (pup rearing) season. The
area searched (Fig. 1) was divided into smaller
blocks and combed intensively for dens by two
or three people. The locations of these dens were
plotted on a map (Fig. 1) and details, such as
active or non- active, number of holes per den,
distances between dens, and site characteristics
were recorded. After the survey, all the dens were
visited once a week to collect data on den use.
Sightings of animals (adults and young) at den
sites were recorded. We also looked for indirect
signs of animal presence, such as freshly
unearthed soil, additional holes dug up,
pugmarks, presence of scats and food remains at
den sites. Visits were made till June (when the
animals abandoned the dens with the onset of
the monsoons) in 1994, and till May in 1995
(after the breeding season).
JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
5
POPULA r I ON AND ECOLOG Y OF THE INDIAN FOX
Population estimate: Based on the number
of dens located, den use data, and number of
adult foxes seen at den sites, a rough estimate
of the adult population at RWS was determined.
Where animals were never seen at active dens
throughout the study period, and especially if
the den formed part of a complex of dens (termed
den group) as in the majority of cases, we
presumed that the den / den group belonged to
a pair, as two animals for each den group was
the norm in most of the den groups.
Densities in grazing land and
enclosures: Four sites of 40 ha each were
selected in each of the two habitat types. Except
for one site in the grazing land, which was
predominantly scrub, all the other sites were
grasslands. The sites were thoroughly covered
on foot fortnightly — on different days — in
the evenings from July 1994 to April 1995.
Though the sites were searched on different days,
repeated flushing of animals from the same areas
suggested that the animals were territorial and
that there was no significant movement between
sites. Each site was searched in an hour’s time,
by walking at a steady pace, in an irregular and
generally zigzag manner. Some light noise
(humming, dragging of feet, tapping with a
stick) was made to flush the resting, sleeping or
hidden foxes inside dens or among vegetation.
Loud noise was avoided as it would alert the
animal a good distance away, allowing it to slip
away without being detected. On flushing a fox,
the direction in which it ran and the place it
stopped was observed to avoid duplication of
counts. The fox sightings were expressed as
number of foxes/40 ha.
Food Availability: Data on the abundance
of the known food items of the fox, such as fruits
(number of fruiting trees) and grasshoppers in
the two habitat types was obtained from other
studies carried out during the project.
Grasshoppers were sampled by the sweep net
sampling method (100 sweeps per site), and was
done fortnightly at all four sites in both the
habitat types. The density of fruiting trees was
enumerated by laying 40 quadrats (size 50 x
50 m) each in both the habitat types, and noting
the species of trees or shrubs, their numbers and
heights. An index of rodent abundance was
obtained by enumeration of burrows along one
kilometre transects (with a width of two metres),
laid at random in both the habitat types. The
transects were done during summer (breeding
season of the fox). Fifteen transects each were
laid in the enclosure and grazing land during
1994 and 1995. For more details, see Manakadan
and Rahmani (1997).
Diet: Scats of fox were collected whenever
seen, but mostly during the breeding season,
when they were available around den sites. The
scats were mixed with warm water, strained and
dried. After drying, the remains of animal and
plant parts were recorded visually. The
percentage composition was not estimated
systematically, as the main purpose of the
exercise was to look for remains of bustard eggs
or chicks.
Results
Dens: The breeding (pup rearing) season
of the fox in RWS was determined to be between
February to May from 3 years observations. The
breeding season was heralded by the re-
excavation of old dens or digging of new ones in
February. Scats of pups were found around den
sites during April and May. Pups were seen
around the den sites till the onset of the monsoon,
after which the dens were abandoned. Thus, den
use by the Indian fox at RWS was largely
restricted to the pup rearing period.
Fox dens were recorded in grassland or
light scrub habitats — none in dense scrub areas.
Dens were dug in the flat ground or in trench
cum mound walls (TCM) of the enclosures. Two
dens were recorded along the slopes of a stream.
The number of holes or openings per den varied
from one to as high as 43, but two to seven holes
were most common (Figs. 2, 3). All the holes of
a den were not used, two to seven active holes
per den were most frequent. The frequency of
6
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
POPULA TION AND ECO LOG Y OF THE INDIA N FOX
Frequency of dens
Number of holes
Fig. 2: Number of holes per den
Frequency of dens
Fig. 3: Number of active holes per den (1994)
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
7
POPULA TION AND ECOLOGY OF THE INDIAN FOX
Table 1
DETAILS AND STATUS OF DEN GROUP
(BASED ON 1994 DATA)
Den Group
No.
No. of
dens per
group
No. of
foxes
recorded/
estimated
1994
Status in
1993
1995
1
1
0
NA
-
NA
2
4
2*
A
A
A
3
6
2**
LL-A
A
NA
4
5
0
NA
A
NA
5
3
0
0
A
NA
6
5
2*
A
A
NA
7
8
9
NA
A
NA
8
5
2*
A
A
NA
9
5
0
0
NA
NA
10
5
2*
B
A
NA
11
1
0
0
NA
NA
12
4
2**
B
A
NA
13
7
9
A
B
NA
14
2
1*
A
A
NA
15
9
2*
B
B
NA
16
2
0
0
-
NA
17
1
2(?)
LL-A
-
NA
18
2
1*
A
B
NA
19
7
2*
B
A
A
20
4
2**
B
-
NA
21
5
2*
B
A
NA
22
3
0
0
-
NA
23
3
0
0
-
NA
24
8
2**(j *\
A
A
A
25
3
9
LL-NA -
NA
26
3
2(?)
A
-
NA
27
3
7**
B
-
NA
28
1
1*
A
A
NA
29
5
2**(1 *)
A
-
A
30
3
9
A
-
A
31
4
2**(1*)
A
-
B
32
4
2(?)
A
A
NA
33
4
9
LL-NA B
NA
* - from sightings
** - from signs (scats or intensive burrowing)
2**( 1 *) - 1 seen, but probably used by a pair.
? - uncertain
A - Active burrows regularly used, dug or redug
NA - Not active, dug early in the season, but later largely
or totally unused.
O - Dens of previous years: not dug at all during the
year of survey .
B - Breeding (pups or scats of pups seen)
LL-A - Located late (afterbreeding season); -probably
active
LL-NA - Located late (after breeding season); - probably
not active
- Not located - all or some of the dens of the den group
were not located.
active openings in the eight breeding dens of
1994 were six for three dens, five for two dens,
three for two dens and nine for one den.
Many of the dens in the grazing land had
rodent burrows around them, indicating that
these sites had been appropriated from rodents.
In some cases, the rodents continued to live in
some of the burrows not enlarged by the fox. Re-
use of dens by rodents after the fox had
abandoned the dens during the monsoon was
recorded in some cases. On two occasions, large
monitor lizards Varanus bengalensis were
recorded entering active fox dens. Once, a large
monitor lizard, flushed by us near a den site, ran
into a fox den, from which a family of gerbils
rushed out and ran into their burrows a few
metres from the fox den. Seven of the fox dens
were appropriated by jackals or wolves (Fig. 1).
During the preliminary non-intensive
searches for dens in 1993, a total of 52 dens were
located (33 active and 19 non-active). Breeding
activity was detected in 4 dens: 1 in Enclosure-1,
2 in Enclosure-II and 1 in the grazing land.
During intensive searches in 1994, a total of 135
dens were located, of which 52 were active. Of
the 135 dens, 51 were in Enclosure-1, 15 in
Enclosure-II, 9 in Enclosure-Ill and 60 in the*
grazing land. As much as 31% of the dens in the
grazing land were close to Enclosure-I and II.
Breeding activity was recorded in eight dens:
three dens each in Enclosure-I and Enclosure-
II; one each in Enclosure-Ill and grazing land.
During the breeding season in 1995, no
additional dens were located. Of the dens located
in 1994, only eight dens were reused (active).
Breeding was confirmed at only one den in the
grazing land.
From the data on sightings of animals and
den use, it was evident that many of the foxes
used more than one den. From this data, the 135
dens located during the intensive survey in 1994
were grouped into 33 den groups, of which 22
were active (Table 1 & Fig. 1). Dens of a group
generally tended to be clumped in an area, the
distances between dens varying from as close as
8
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
POPULA TJONAND ECOLOGY OF THE INDIAN FOX
No. of occurrences
Den group size classes
Fig. 4: Number of dens per den group (1994)
No. of occurrences
Den group size classes
Fig. 5: Number of active dens per den group ( 1 994)
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
9
POPULA TION AND ECO LOG Y OF THE INDIA N FOX
12 m to 100 m. In some cases, the distance of a
den from the main cluster was more than 200 m
(e.g., den group no. 10 - Fig. 1), but these were
clumped to the group, based on sightings and
movements of adult and young foxes between
dens. In some cases, we grouped two clusters of
adjoining dens into one (e.g., den group no. 7),
as one of these clusters was hardly used and was
probably the denning site of the pair in the area
during a previous year. The distances between
den groups varied, and were less in the enclosures
{Enclosure-I: 463.6 m ±283.8 (S.D.), Enclosure-
II: 275.0 m ±302.9, Enclosure-Ill: (400.0
±424.3) than the grazing land (633.3 m
±314.3)}. The number of dens per den group
varied from one to nine dens, with three to five
dens being most frequent (Fig. 4). However, not
all dens in a den group were active during a year,
one to three active dens was most common (Fig.
5). We presume that each (active) den group
belonged to either a pair of foxes or rarely
individuals, but cannot be certain as the animals
were not collared, the nocturnal movements were
not monitored, and a few dens showed all signs
of regular use (especially those in the grazing
lands), but no animals were sighted in them.
Population: We regularly saw five pairs
of foxes around Enclosure-I (den group 3, 6, 8,
10 & 13), four pairs around Enclosure-II (den
group 14, 15, 19, 21), three pairs in the grazing
lands east of Enclosure-Ill (den group 25,31 and
33), and a single individual at den group 28
during our field trips in 1993 and 1994 — a total
of 25 foxes. Judging from the number of dens
and groups, den use data, and sightings of the
animal around dens during the census, it is
estimated that about 40-50 foxes were present in
the study area during the 1994 breeding season.
About the same numbers should have been
present during 1993. In 1995, the population
dropped to about 10 animals due to an epidemic.
The foxes were usually seen in pairs around
the den-groups. Two instances of four adult
animals frequenting a common area was
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
July-1 July-ll Aug- 1 Aug-ll Sep-I Sep-ll
Mean numbers/40 ha
Fortnights (1994)
□ Grazing Land □Enclosure
Fig. 6: Abundance (sighting / 40 ha) of the Indian fox in the two habitats
10
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000
POPULA TIONAND ECOLOGY OF THE INDIAN FOX
observed. In the first instance, it was during the
early monsoon period, when four animals
(probably pairs from nearby waterlogged dens)
regularly sheltered under a fallen tree as the grass
cover was burnt off in a summer fire. In the other
instance four adult animals were flushed from a
non-breeding den in summer. Otherwise, pairs
were the norm and even in clumped den areas,
the pairs kept to themselves. Solitary animals
were flushed from dens on a few occasions, but
the possibility of the mate sleeping elsewhere
unnoticed cannot be ruled out. The only den
where solitary animals were repeatedly flushed,
was at den group 28, which comprised of only
one den with a single enhance. Additionally, this
was the only single-hole den from which we had
actual sightings of the animal.
Abundance of the fox was significantly
higher (U=140, P<0.05) in the enclosure (mean
0.65/40 ha, S.D. ± 0.99) than in the grazing land
(mean 0.15/40 ha S.D. ±0.49). The fox was
recorded during all the fortnights in the
enclosures from the first week of July 1994, till
the first week of September 1994 (Fig. 6). In the
grazing land, the fox was recorded only during
two fortnights between July to August 1994. In
both cases, the foxes were close to Enclosure-II,
and ran into it on being approached. All the
sightings in the grazing land and enclosures were
m ‘grassland habitats’, none in scrubland. After
the second week of September 1994, there were
only rare sightings of the fox in the Sanctuary.
The remains of five foxes and two wolves were
found at different places between July to
September. The locals too reported seeing dead
foxes. After the epidemic, the only sightings were
of single animals, one each in Enclosure-II and
the grazing land (den group No. 31) during
March and April 1995.
Food Availability
Fruits: Of the two species of fruits
recorded to be eaten by the fox, the density of
Cassia fistula was higher in the enclosure (1.8
trees/ha) than in the grazing land (0.2 trees/ha).
Though the density of Zizyphus mauritiana was
about the same in the enclosure and the grazing
land, the trees were relatively taller in the
enclosure (mean = 1.5 m) than in the grazing
land (mean = 0.65 m), and yielded more fruit.
Other fruits that could probably be part of the
diet of the fox are Morinda tinctovia and Phoenix
sylvestris. Trees of these two species were more
abundant in the enclosure (0.6 and 5.2 trees/ha
respectively) than in the grazing land ( 1 tree/ha
for P. sylvestris ; M. tinctoria not recorded). The
higher densities of fruiting trees and fruit yield,
and restrictions on harvesting of fruits in the
enclosures, make the availability of fruits greater
in the enclosure than grazing land.
Grasshoppers: Insect sampling showed
that there was a slightly higher abundance of
grasshoppers in the enclosure than in the grazing
land. Besides numerical abundance, there was
greater insect biomass availability in the
enclosure due to the predominance of a larger
species of grasshopper ( Acorypha ), compared to
a smaller species ( Chrotogonus ) in grazing land.
Studies on the great Indian bustard have shown
that Acorypha is preferred to Chrotogonus ,
especially by adult birds (Manakadan and
Rahmani 1990). The fox would also find feeding
on the larger species more profitable.
Rodents: Rodent burrows were recorded
only in the grazing land in 1994 and 1995. Of
the 1 5 transects each laid in the grazing land for
both the years, a total of seventeen burrows
(2 active and 15 non active) were recorded in
five transects during 1994, and nine burrows (6
active and 3 non-active) were located in 5
transects during 1995.
Diet: Analysis of 58 scats showed the
presence of rodents, hare, monitor lizard and
grasshoppers (predominantly Acorypha sp.)
among the animal matter. Among vegetable
matter, seeds of groundnut Arcichis hypogea ,
Zizyphus mauritiana and Cassia fistula were
recorded. Remains of eggs or chicks of the great
Indian bustard were not recorded. Scats of pups
were almost solely made up of rodent fur.
1 1
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
POPULA TIONAND ECOLOGY OF THE INDIAN FOX
Threats: The potential predators of the fox
at RWS are the wolf, jackal, jungle cat, monitor
lizard (on young), and large raptors. Wolves and
jackals were seen digging (to eat cubs?) or
appropriating fox dens during the breeding
season. Large monitor lizards were also seen
entering dens on a few occasions. The remains
of two foxes, with the flesh stripped off neatly
from the bones, were found, indicating that the
kills were made by birds of prey. A local reported
seeing a dog killing a fox (during the epidemic),
but we observed play between a fox and a half
grown dog (at a good distance away from each
other). The local people do not eat the fox, but
two communities, the Pardhis based at
Nandikotkur and a nomadic beggar community,
hunt and eat them. We recorded three dens that
were smoked and dug out in the grazing land.
Poachers do not hunt in or near the enclosures,
for fear of being caught by the Forest Department.
Discussion
Fox populations often increase steadily
with the years, reach levels of overpopulation or
saturation, and then decline rapidly due to
epidemics (Rausch 1958, Prater 1980, Wandeler
et al. 1974, Malcolm 1986, and Ginsberg and
Macdonald 1990). In RWS, the population of the
fox had increased from half a dozen animals
during 1985-87 (Manakadan and Rahmani 1987)
to about 40-50 animals during 1992-94. It then
dropped down to about 1 0 animals in 1 995 due
to an epidemic. Canine distemper and rabies are
common among canids and could be an
important factor in controlling populations,
especially of the fox, due to their greater numbers
and density (Mech 1970, Wandeler et al. 1974
and Malcolm 1986). The increase in population
of the fox in the Sanctuary could have been a
natural occurrence, or brought about by the
protection of the species and its habitat after the
establishment of the Sanctuary.
Scrub control is suggested as a manage-
ment tool to aid detection and avoidance of
terrestrial predators of the San Joaquin kit fox
Vulpes macrotis mutica (Warrick and Cypher
1998) and the desert kit fox Vulpes macrotis
arsipus (Zoellick et al 1998). Tree and shrub
growth at RWS has increased significantly,
especially bordering streams (Manakadan and
Rahmani 1997), and the fox or its dens were not
recorded in such habitats. Scrub control appears
necessary in such areas, as it gives cover to
potential predators of the fox, such as wolf, jackal
and jungle cat, to stalk the species. The fox was
recorded in light scrub areas, which appear
important for resting and shelter during the day
(especially during the non-denning period), and
may be vital to the species to escape aerial
predators (such as eagles), especially in over-
grazed or burnt areas.
Digging of dens in trench cum mound
(TCM) walls is easier due to the loose soil and
mbble on the trenches, and this may explain the
concentration of dens in the enclosures and TCM
walls. Most areas of grazing land had shallow
soil, exposed rock beds and a calcareous layer,
which made digging of dens difficult. In the case
of the Arctic fox A lope x lagopus, Eberhardt et
al. (1982) mentioned that den sites were
restricted to areas where the permafrost was
sufficiently deep and soil characteristics allowed
burrowing. It is also likely that absence of
poaching results in the concentration of dens in
an area. This is because the young have greater
chances of survival, and on maturity, some of
them dig dens in the vicinity of their parents’
dens, especially since foxes are social canids.
This may explain the clumped distribution of
dens and den groups in the protected enclosures,
in contrast to relatively dispersed distribution in
the grazing land.
Although TCM walls may attract the fox
for denning, it is primarily protection, habitat
improvement and lack of disturbance that have
attracted them to the enclosures. This explains
why dens were concentrated in Enclosure-I and
II (protected plots), but not in Enclosure-Ill
(unprotected). Malcolm (1986). and Ginsberg
12
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1), APR. 2000
POPULA TIONAND ECOLOGY OF THE INDIAN FOX
and Macdonald ( 1 990 - quoting various sources)
reason that clumping of fox dens is an indication
of good habitat. Trottier (1992) mentioned that
the swift fox Vulpes velox prefers grass of
moderate height. This may also be true for the
Indian fox, for respite from the heat and
protection from aerial predators, especially
eagles. The protected enclosures were relatively
free of human disturbance. Foxes in the grazing
land were frequently disturbed by the movements
of people, graziers and dogs. During our visits
to the dens, sightings of animals were common
around den sites in the enclosures, but were rare
in the grazing land. It was not clear whether the
foxes in the grazing land come out of their dens
only at dusk to avoid frequent disturbance (and
were hence missed during our visits), or they took
refuge elsewhere during the day.
Multiple den use is likely to be both, a
strategy to confuse predators (jackal and wolf)
and for sanitation. In the desert kit fox Vulpes
macrotis cirsipus, individuals were reported to
use 3-16 dens, while pahs use 9-16 dens (Zoellick
et al. 1998). Canids are known to move their
pups regularly to different dens (Sargeant et al.
1975), and this has also been reported in the
Indian fox (Johnsingh 1978). Sargeant et al.
(1975) recorded splitting of litters among two or
more dens in the red fox Vulpes vulpes. In this
study, it was observed that usually after breeding
and occupancy of a den for about two months,
die pair shifted to another den nearby and even
to a third den later on. Half grown pups then
frequent all such dens of the den group.
Johnsmgh (1978), from his studies in
Madurai dist., Tamil Nadu, recorded dens with
either two holes or the more common multiple
opening dens (maximum of 23 holes). In this
study, except for a few single hole dens, the rest
were multiple hole dens (up to 43 openings). A
greater number of holes per den probably
indicates the use of the dens by the same pair for
many years, as stated by Johnsingh (1978).
However, unlike Johnsingh’ s findings, areas
around dens in RWS had less vegetation
compared to the surrounding areas. This is
because the soil at RWS has a calcareous layer.
This layer when brought to the surface by the
foxes digging, hinders plant growth.
The extent of predation on bustard eggs
and chicks by the fox was not established.
Remains of eggs or chicks were not recorded in
the scats analysed, probably because most scats
were not collected in the major breeding season
of the bustard. It is also unlikely for egg shell
pieces to appear in the scats, as the fox might
lick the egg contents and leave the shell. In some
cases of nest predation recorded during this and
the earlier study [predator not known] shell
pieces were found strewn around the nest sites.
As for chicks, not much identifiable matter could
be expected in the scats, except for the bill or
claws.
A major drawback of our studies on the
Indian fox was that we could not investigate the
nocturnal activities of this largely nocturnal
species. Also, it was not possible to identify
individuals from body characteristics since the
animals were not marked. A study of radio-
collared animals with the help of night vision
equipment is essential to get precise information
on the species.
Acknowledgements
This study is a part of the Grassland
Ecology Project of the Bombay Natural History
Society and the Centre of Wildlife &
Ornithology, Aligarh Muslim University, funded
by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and
sponsored by the Ministry of Environment and
Forests, Govt, of India. We thank the Andhra
Pradesh Forest Department for permission to
work in the Sanctuary, and the cooperation and
help rendered by the staff of Rollapadu Wildlife
Sanctuary.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
13
POP U LA TION AND ECOLOG Y OF THE INDIA N FOX
References
Eberhardt, L.E., W.C. Hanson, J. Bergston, R.A. Garrot
& E.R. Hanson (1982): Arctic fox home range
characteristics in an oil development area.
J. Wild/. Manage. 46: 183-190.
Ginsberg, J.R. & D.W. Macdonald ( 1 990): Foxes, wolves,
jackals and dogs. An action plan for the
conservation of canids. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.
Johnsingh, A.J.T. ( 1 978): Some aspects of the ecology and
behaviour of the Indian fox Vulpes bengalensis.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75: 397-405.
Malcolm, J.R. (1986): Socio-ecology of bat-eared fox
( Otocyon megalotis). J. Zool. London (A) 206: 457-
467.
Manakadan, R. & A.R. Rahmani (1989): Rollapadu
Wildlife Sanctuary. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86:
368-380
Manakadan, R. & A.R. Rahmani (1990): Growth and
development of a captive great Indian bustard chick.
Avicidtural Magazine 96: 133-140.
Manakadan, R. & A.R. Rahmani (1993): A decade of
conservation of the great Indian bustard at
Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary, Kurnool district,
Andhra Pradesh. Proc. Changing Scenario of Bird
Ecology and Conservation (Ed: A. Verghese, S.
Sridhar & A.K. Chakravarthy), Ornithological
Society of India, Bangalore.
Manakadan. R. & A.R. Rahmani (1997): Rollapadu
Wildlife Sanctuary (pp: 1 17-180). In: A study of
the ecology of grasslands of the Indian plains with
particular reference to their endangered fauna. Final
Report, (Ed: A. R. Rahmani). Bombay Natural
History Society. Mumbai. Pp 549.
Mech. L.D. (1970): The Wolf : Ecology and Behaviour of
an Endangered Species. Natural History Press,
Doubleday. New York.
Prater, S.H. (1980): The Book of Indian Animals.
3rd Edition. Bombay Natural History Society,
Bombay.
Rahmani, A.R. (1989): The Great Indian Bustard. Final
Report. Bombay Natural History Society. Bombay.
Rahmani, A.R. & R. Manakadan (1986): Study of the
Ecology of Certain Endangered Species of Wildlife
and their Habitats: The Great Indian Bustard.
Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary. Bombay Natural
History Society, Bombay.
Rahmani, A.R. & R. Manakadan (1987): Interspecific
behaviour of the Great Indian Bustard Ardeotis
nigriceps. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83: 17-31.
Rausch, R. (1958): Some observations on rabies in Alaska,
with special reference to wild canids. J. Wild!.
Manage. 22: 246-260.
Sargeant, A.B., W.K. Pfeifer & S.H Allen (1975): A
spring aerial census of red foxes in North Dakota.
J. Wildl. Manage. 39: 30-39.
Trottier, G.C. (1992): Conservation of Canadian Prairie
Grasslands: A Landowner’s Guide. Canadian
Wildlife Service, Canada.
Wandeler, A., .1. Muller, G. Wachendorfer. W. Schale,
U. Forster & F. Stack (1974): Rabies in wild
carnivores in Central Europe. Ill Ecology and
biology of the fox in relation to control operations.
Zbl. Vet. Med. B. 21: 765-773.
Warrick, G.D. & B.L. Cypher (1998): Factors affecting
the spatial distribution of San Joaquin Kit Foxes.
J. Wildl. Manage. 62: 707-717.
Zoellick, B.W., N.S. Smith & R.S. Henry ( 1 989): Habitat
use and movements of Desert Kit Foxes in Western
Arizona J. Wildl. Manage. 53: 955-961 .
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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1). APR. 2000
BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE MALABAR GREY HORNBILL
{OCYCEROS GRISEUS) IN SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS, INDIA.'
Divya Mudappa2
( With one text-figure)
Key words: hornbill, tropical rainforest, frugivory, seed dispersal, cavity-
nesting, breeding biology
The Malabar grey hornbill ( Ocyceros griseus) is a frugivore, endemic to the tropical
rainforests and moist deciduous forests of the Western Ghats hill ranges, India. I studied
its breeding biology in the Anamalai hills (Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary), Tamil Nadu
state, by monitoring 10 nests and their middens, and conducting intensive observations at
a focal nest. The nesting period lasted an average of 86 days (N=4), and observations at
the focal nest revealed the pre- and post-hatching phases to be 40 and 46 days, respectively.
At the end of the nesting period, the females and the young simultaneously broke out of
the nests. A total of 2397 items of food were delivered by the male hornbill to the inmates
of the focal nest. They included 6 species of lipid-rich and 8 species of sugar-rich fruits,
and at least 14 kinds of animal matter. Lipid-rich fruits formed a major component (c.
37%) of the diet during nesting. Ficus fruits formed 26%, and animal matter 13.8% of the
diet of the incarcerated hornbills. The frequency of sugar- and lipid-rich fruits delivered
per hour of observation was significantly greater in the pre-hatching phase. While the
frequency of animal food delivered was higher in the post-hatching phase. Although the
Malabar grey hornbill used a wide range of food resources, it was observed that a few
species of rare, tropical trees producing lipid-rich fruits during the nesting period, play an
important role in the maintenance of the species.
Introduction
Hornbills (Aves : Bucerotidae and
Bucorvidae) are a group of large, forest and
savanna birds restricted to the Old World tropics.
There are 54 species of hornbills in the world
(Kemp 1988, 1995), nine of which occur in India
(Ali and Ripley 1987). Only in the last two
decades, a few studies have provided valuable
insights into the ecology of these unique cavity-
nesting birds (Hussain 1984, Kannan 1994,
Kemp 1976, 1978, 1988, Kinnaird 1993,
Leighton 1982, Poonswad 1995, Poonswad and
Tsuji 1989, 1994, Reddy et al. 1990, Reddy and
'Accepted June, 1 998
:Centre for Ecological Research and Conservation
3076/5 IV Cross, Gokulam Park
Mysore 570 002, Karnataka, India.
Basalingappa 1995). Hornbills are secondary
cavity-nesters, and the forest-dwelling species are
predominantly fmgivorous. Their breeding cycles
are synchronous with food productivity of the
forest (i.e., fruiting phenology; Kannan 1994),
but they are also dependent on keystone resources
like Ficus for their survival in times of low food
availability. They exhibit wide-ranging
movements to meet their specialized food
requirements (Poonswad 1994). Functionally,
they have been described as keystone mutualists
(Gilbert 1980) as they play an important role in
the dispersal of many rare rainforest tree species
(Kinnaird 1998, Whitney et al. 1998).
The present study aimed to determine the
nesting habitat requirements and breeding
biology of the Malabar grey hornbill, endemic
to the Western Ghats. The former aspect is dealt
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
15
BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE MALABAR GREY HORNBILL
with elsewhere (Mudappa and Kannan 1997).
This paper describes in detail: 1) nesting
activities and behaviour of the male and female
hornbill, 2) duration of nesting period and
distinct phases of the nesting cycle, and 3)
qualitative and quantitative data on the food
delivered by the male to the incarcerated female
and young, in relation to the phases of the nesting
period. The results are compared with other
hornbill species, their reproduction and survival
strategies, and the implications for the conservation
of this rainforest endemic are discussed.
Study Area
The study was undertaken between
December 1993 and May 1994 at the Indira
Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary (10° 13' - 10°33' N
and 76°49' - 77°21' E, an area of 968 km2) in the
Anamalai Hills of the southern Western Ghats,
in Tamil Nadu state, India. A one-month long
preliminary study was carried out in the area in
May- June 1993, when 15 nests were discovered
and seeds from the middens were collected and
identified for future reference. The nests selected
for intensive observation and monitoring were
in the 5.1 km2 wet evergreen' forest patch of
Karian Shola National Park. This forest,
classified as a Southern Tropical Wet Evergreen
Forest (Champion and Seth 1968), receives an
annual rainfall of about 1500 mm. The terrain is
hilly, and the altitude ranges from 350 m to
2400 m above msl in the Sanctuary, which
extends into Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary
and Eravikulam National Park in the adjacent
Kerala state. The forest is contiguous with moist
deciduous, teak ( Tectona grandis) and bamboo
forests in the surrounding areas.
Study Species
Of the 9 species of hornbills in India, the
Malabar grey hornbill ( Ocyceros griseus), is the
smallest. It is endemic to the Indian subcontinent.
occuring only in the heavy rainfall tracts of the
Western Ghats hill ranges. Most of the
information on the Malabar grey hornbill and
other Indian hornbills is anecdotal- with notes
on natural history. Early papers dealing with
nidification of the Malabar and the common grey
hornbills ( Ocyceros birostris) are those of
Bingham (1879), Hall (1918), Lowther (1942),
and Abdulali (1942). More comprehensive
information on their ecology and behaviour was
provided by Ali and Ripley (1970, 1987) and
Kemp (1978).
The Malabar grey hornbill is sexually
dimorphic: the male has a large, bright orange
bill and golden brown iris, while the female has
a relatively small and pale-coloured bill and dark
brown iris. The species is monogamous, the
nesting pair usually exhibiting high nest-site
fidelity, occupying the same nest-cavities every
year (Kemp 1978, Ali and Ripley 1987, Mudappa
and Kannan 1997). The Malabar grey hornbill
exhibits biparental care like most other
monogamous birds with altricial young (Clutton-
Brock 1991). While the incubating female is
incarcerated, the male provisions her and the
other inmates of the nest.
Methods
Active nests of the Malabar grey hornbill
were located with the help of a local field
assistant, by following the parent birds, and by
checking for signs of previous nesting, such as
seeds and faecal remains (midden) at the base of
the nest trees. Fifteen nests were located during
the preliminary study in May 1993. Seeds
collected from the midden were catalogued and
used for reference during the study. Twelve
additional nests were discovered during the
initial half of the study (December 1 993 to March
1994). Ten nests were chosen for monitoring
during the nesting period (the period of
incarceration of the female and the young) in
Karian Shola National Park. Of these, one was
16
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE MALABAR GREY HORN BILL
selected on the basis of logistics for intensive
observation.
Intensive observation of a focal nest: The
✓
focal nest was observed from the last week of
January 1994 to May 1994, for approximately
six-hour intervals on every alternate day (more
or less uniformly) throughout the three-month
nesting period. Observations were made between
0700 h and 1300 h. The forenoon was chosen
for nest observation, while the rest of the day
was used to visit the other nine nests.
I observed the nest to gather information
on the quantity and quality of food delivered by
the male to the incarcerated inmates. The food
was broadly classified as plant and animal food.
The plant food was further categorised as: a) figs,
b) sugar-rich non- fig, and c) lipid-rich fruits,
based on McKey (1975) and Snow (1981).
Observations were made from a ground hide
about 18m from the base of the focal nest through
a 7x50 binoculars or a 20x50 spotting scope. For
each visit by the male hornbill to the nest, I
recorded the number and type of food items
delivered, the duration of the visit (to the nearest
5 seconds), and the total number of visits during
each sampling/observation session. Ad libitum
observations on other activities like nest-cavity
sealing, cleaning, excretion, begging by the
inmates, and the behaviour of the male during
the time of food delivery were recorded. At the
end of each session, the seeds and other faecal
remains in the midden were examined, identified,
classified, and counted.
Nest midden monitoring: Ten nests
(including the focal nest) were visited regularly
to note the status of nesting, quantify the
regurgitated or excreted seeds of the fruits eaten
by the inmates, and to identify the other debris
in the midden. Of the food items consumed by
the nest-cavity inmates, only non-digestible parts
such as seeds of fruits, elytra of insects, and
reptile scales occur in the midden. All
distinguishable midden remains were collected,
identified, counted, and recorded. The midden
below the nest-tree was cleared of all debris after
each visit. Small seeds and animal matter in the
faecal remains could not be quantified. The
presence of Malabar grey hornbill feathers in the
midden was taken to indicate moulting.
Similarly, the presence of egg-shell in the
midden, or the characteristic begging calls of the
young, were evidence of hatching or the presence
of chick(s) in the nest.
Statistical analyses: The frequency of food
items delivered during the nesting period was
calculated. Differences between the food (type
and quantity) consumed between the two distinct
phases (pre- and post-hatching) of the nesting
period were tested for statistical significance
using Mann- Whitney U test (Seigel and
Castellan 1988), using SPSS/PC+ computer
software (Norusis 1990). The difference in the
occurrence of seeds (frequency) in the midden
was tested for significance, using the non-
parametric Mann- Whitney U Test similar to the
analysis of direct feeding observation.
Results
Characteristics and occupation of focal
nest: The focal nest cavity was located at about
14 m on an Artocarpus lakoocha (Moraceae)
tree. The diameter at breast height (1.2 m) of
the focal nest tree was 56 cm, the height 25 m,
and the estimated diameter at nest height was
50 cm. The cavity entrance was circular in shape,
and oriented towards northwest. My field
assistant observed a bird entering the nest cavity
in the first week of February. This was probably
an instance of nest preparation, cleaning, and
widening of the nest entrance.
After this, there was regular movement of
the breeding pair in the vicinity of the nest- tree.
On February 17, the female hornbill was seen
entering the nest-cavity. The cavity entrance was
then half-sealed. The male and the female visited
the nest (8 times in 6 hrs). During these visits,
they appeared to be enlarging the cavity entrance.
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
17
BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE MALABAR GREY HORNBILL
The female was in the nest on February 18, and
was seen sealing the cavity entrance, leaving only
a slit, through which the male fed the inmates
during the nesting period.
The male was never observed to be
involved in nest sealing, repair, or delivering any
kind of sealing material, unlike the female which
often repaired the seal with its bill. The female
was seen cleaning the nest-cavity by throwing
out a lot of seeds and woody debris. The female
hornbill used her own excreta, rich in Ficus
seeds, as material for sealing the cavity entrance.
The inmates effected nest sanitation by squirting
their excreta out through the slit-like opening of
the cavity entrance.
Nesting period: The nesting season lasted
for about three months, between February and
May in the study population of the Malabar grey
hornbills. The nesting period could be
distinguished into two main phases: the pre-
hatching and the post-hatching phase. However,
each phase in turn has been further divided into
3 sub-phases (fortnightly) for analysis. The
nesting period in the focal nest was 86 days,
commencing from February 18 (incarceration of
the female) to May 15 (emergence of chick and
female from the nest). The mean duration of the
nesting period was 86 days (± 2.7 S.D.; N=4).
In the focal nest, the young hatched 40 days
after the incarceration of the female. The post-
hatching phase was 46 days. Only one chick
appeared to have fledged. The female and young
broke out of the nest together. Details of the nesting
period in the ten nests are given in Table 1 .
Clutch size and moulting: The clutch size
in the breeding population could not be
determined. In the focal nest, only one young
was seen. One nest when examined on March 1 ,
1994, had only one egg. A week later, there were
two eggs in this nest. The female resealed the
cavity entrance and bred successfully.
Flight feathers were collected from the
midden occasionally, particularly in the month
of April. The rectrices were never found and the
Table 1
DATES OF INCARCERATION AND FLEDGING
IN THE STUDY NESTS
Nest number Date of
incarceration
Fledging date
1.
1 7 February
1 6 May
2.
1 5 February
3 May
3.
1 8 February
13 May*
4.
1 8 February
15 May*
5.
21 February
1 6 May
6.
1 8 February
1 8 April**
7.
4 March*
1 1 May*
8.
1 7 March*
13 May
9.
3 March*
1 6 May
10.
1 8 February
1 5 May
* — The chick fledged between this day and 20 May
** — Abandoned
* - Nests discovered after the nesting had commenced
female of the focal nest had tail feathers
throughout the nesting period. These could be
seen while the bird was ejecting the faecal matter
through ‘the slit. However, rectrices had been
collected from the midden of six nests during
the preliminary study in 1993. Thus, it is likely
that the moult in this species is partial.
Food delivery by the male hornbill: The
focal nest was observed for a total of 161 hours
and 45 minutes. All through the nesting period,
the male provisioned the incarcerated female and
later, the young also. A total of 2,397 food items,
which included 1 1 kinds of fruit, 5 species of
vertebrates, and at least 8 types of invertebrates,
including 6 types of insects, were delivered by
the male (Appendix). Lipid-rich fruits
predominated in the diet of the incarcerated
hornbills, constituting 36.9% of the food
delivered. Other food categories were Ficus 26%,
sugar-rich fruits 22.6%, and animal matter
13.8%. If there were several items, these were
regurgitated one by one. Large fruits and
vertebrate prey were usually brought as single
items.
The number of food items delivered peaked
during the pre-hatching phase, and declined
thereafter, being minimum before the fledging
of the young. The frequency of lipid-rich and
18
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000
BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE MALABAR GREY HORN BILL
APPENDIX
PLANT AND ANIMAL FOOD DELIVERED AT THE NEST BY THE MALE MALABAR GREY HORNBILL
A: Plant food (fruit)
S.No. Species
Habit
Number
Number
(Family)
in pre-
in post-
hatching
hatching
phase
phase
Sugai
1.
r-rich Fruit
Ficus spp.
(Moraceae)
Tree/
Strangler
443
123
2.
Mi mu sops elengi
(Sapotaceae)
Tree
17
_
3.
B ridel ia sp.
(Eupborbiaceae)
Climber
417
13
4.
Elaegnus conferta
(Elaegnaceae)
Climber
4
_
5.
Linocera
intermedia
(Sapindaceae)+
Tree
6.
Syzygium spp.
(Myrtaceae)+
Tree
_
7.
Filicium decipiens
(Oleaceae)*
Tree
_
8.
Zizyphus
nummularia
(Rhamnaceae)
Shrub
61
9.
Glycosmis
pentaphylla
(Rutaceae)
Shrub
11
_
Lipid-rich Fruit
10.
Uvaria sp.
(Annonaceae)
Climber
510
63
11.
Neolitsea sp.
(Lauraceae)
Tree
173
52
12.
Cinnamomum sp.
(Lauraceae)
Tree
13.
Persea macarantlia
(Lauraceae)*
Tree
_
14.
Litsea sp.
(Lauraceae )+
Tree
_
_
15.
Beilschmedia sp.
(Lauraceae)
Tree
_
19
16.
Myristica
dactyloides
(Myristicaceae)*
Tree
A: Plant food (fruit) (contd.)
S.No. Species
(Family)
Flabit
Number
in pre-
hatching
phase
Number
in post-
hatching
phase
17.
Knema attenuate
(Myristicaceae)*
Tree
18.
Polya Ithia sp.
(Annonaceae)+
Tree
-
-
19.
20.
Other Fruits
Strychnos
nux-vomica
( Logan iaceae)*
Unidentified**
Tree
-
+ — Found in the midden of the focal nest
* — Found in the middens of other (non-focal) nests
** — Ten species whose seeds were found in small numbers
in the middens (three were found in the midden of the
focal nest)
B: Animal Food
Vertebrates
1. Young bird
2. Snake
3. Lizard ( Calotes sp.)
4. Gecko
5. Frog
Invertebrates
1 . Beetle
2. Cricket/Grasshopper
3. Cicada
4. Stick Insect
5. Caterpillars
6. Winged insect (wasp, termite, etc.)
7. Millipede/Centipede
8. Scorpions
Total number of animal food items delivered during the
nesting period = 491.
non-fig sugar-rich fruits was significantly higher
in the pre-hatching phases (Mann- Whitney U
test, N=16, U=24, pO.OOl and U=36, p<0.001,
respectively). Figs were eaten consistently
throughout the nesting period. The frequency
(number per hour of observation) of animal
matter delivered was greater in the post-hatching
phase (Mann-Whitney U test, U=41, p=0.047 for
invertebrates and U=64, p=0,014 for vertebrates;
Fig. 1). Within the pre-hatching phase, the
frequency of lipid-rich fruits was significantly
higher than the other types (Kruskal-Wallis
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
19
Minutes/hour Number/hour Minutes/hour
BREEDING BIO LOG Y OF THE MA LA BA R GRE Y HORNBIL L
Fig. 1 : a. Time spent at nest by the male, b. Visiting rate of the male, and c. Frequency of different food
items delivered to the inmates by the male during the nesting period.
20
JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000
BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE MALABAR GREY HORN BILL
X2= 1 3 .48, df=3, p<0.001), while in the post-
hatching phase, animal food was significantly
greater (%2=23.26, df=3, p<0.001).
Time spent at nest and visitation rate of
the male: The time spent and the visitation rate
of the male hornbill was influenced by the
number and type of items delivered. Time spent
(minutes per hour of observation) was
significantly higher (Mann- Whitney U test,
U=38, p<0.01) in the pre-hatching than in the
post-hatching phase, as a greater number
(69.5%) of small fruits (< 1.5 cm) was delivered
(each had to be regurgitated individually). The
visitation rate did not differ between the phases
(Fig. 1).
Feeding habits — evidence from
middens: Supplementary data from the middens
of the ten nests showed that nine additional
species of fruits were consumed by the
incarcerated hornbills (e.g. Strychnos nux-
vomica, Litsea sp., Persea macarantha, see
Appendix). A few seeds of ten unidentified plant
species were collected from some middens. There
was no significant difference between the pre-
and post-hatching phases in the frequency of the
lipid-rich fruit seeds collected in the midden. The
frequency of non-fig sugar-rich fruit seeds in the
midden was found to be significantly greater in
the pre-hatching phase (Mann- Whitney U test,
N=21, U=T 16, p=0.007).
Predation on Malabar grey hornbill and
nest intrusion: Two cases of mortality of Malabar
grey hornbills were recorded. The first was of a
young bird found towards the end of the nesting
period during the preliminary study in 1993. The
second was presumably an adult, whose remains
were found in the middle of the nesting period
in 1994, close to a regularly monitored nest
which had been abandoned five days earlier.
The focal nest was once visited by three
hill mynas ( Gracula religiosa ) that flew away at
the approach of the male hornbill. A Malabar
giant squirrel ( Ratufa indica) and the dusky-
striped palm squirrel ( Funambulus sublineatus )
were other inquisitive visitors to the nest, but
were apparently disregarded by the incarcerated
female.
Discussion
The 32 species of Oriental hornbills are
essentially forest-dwelling, arboreal birds (Kemp
1988, 1995). These species, including the
Malabar grey hornbill, are long-lived, and have
a distinct and relatively long nesting period. The
nesting period of the Malabar grey hornbill lasted
an average of 86 (± 2.7 days) during this study.
The success of this bird as a rainforest specialist
can be attributed to its life-history strategies (the
long and peculiar nesting behaviour), and the
adaptation in food habits.
Predation of adult Malabar grey hornbills
by animals other than man is rare. Even during
the vulnerable period of incarceration, the
chances of predation are low, because the nest-
cavity entrance is sealed, and the female with
her large, armoured bill can protect the nest from
intruders. This protection, along with the cavity
nesting habit, can be the reason for the long
incubation period of these birds.
Overall, the nesting periocl and food
delivery by the Malabar grey hornbill in the area,
as in the case of great pied hornbill ( Buceros
bicornis ), seems to be associated with fruiting
phenology, and the onset of the southwest
monsoon (Kannan 1994). Studies in Thailand
(Poonswad et al. 1988) have found the nesting
of hornbills to commence and terminate later
than in this region, probably because of the later
monsoon. Hornbills subsist on an array of diverse,
locally rare, tree species (e.g. members of the
Lauraceae; Kannan and James 1999). The
nesting period coincides with the peak in fruit
availability, as shown by the fruiting phenology
study of Kannan and James (1999). Large
numbers of rainforest trees of the families
Lauraceae, Burseraceae, and Myristicaceae {op
cit.) contribute to the abundance of fruit.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
21
BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE MALABAR GREY HORN BILL
Lipid-rich fruits formed the most abundant
component of the food delivered. The coincidence
of nesting with peak in lipid-rich fruit availability
could be as a result of long-term co-evolutionary
process (McKey 1975). The high lipid content
of these fruits may be necessary to meet the
requirements of the nesting, moulting, and
growing birds (Snow 1981).
Protein, carbohydrate, and water is
obtained from sugar-rich fruits (including figs)
and animal matter, which supplement the lipid-
rich diet of the nesting hornbills. Notably, the
Malabar grey hornbill fed less on Ficus fruits
(26%) than the great pied, oriental pied
(Anthracoceros coronatus ), and wreathed
{Aceros undulatus) hornbills (Kannan and James
1997, Tsuji 1996). The smaller white-throated
brown hornbill ( Ptilolaemus tickelli ), however,
is shown to feed less on figs.
Smaller-sized hornbills are able to feed on
a wider range of fruit and animal food, probably
due to their smaller body size which enables them
to access even the understorey shrub species, thus
reducing the predominance of any one type of
food. The Malabar grey hornbill consumes a
greater variety of sugar-rich, particularly
understorey fruits, as well as fruits of small trees
and climbers, unlike the larger syntopic great
pied hornbill which prefers large, canopy and
emergent trees (Kannan 1994).
A wide range of food items are fed to the
nest inmates. The kind of food delivered
influenced the visitation -rate, and the time spent
at nest by the male. The time spent was
significantly higher in the pre-hatching phase
as there was a greater number of small fruits (both
lipid- and sugar-rich fruits, i.e., 61% of all small
fruits) delivered at the nest. The time spent at
the nest decreased towards the end of the nesting
period, when large fruits and animal food were
brought for the inmates and delivered as a single
item per visit. The visitation rate did not differ
between the phases, though the number of fruits
delivered per visit decreased in the post-hatching
phase. This was probably compensated by the
nutritive quality (lipid-rich fruits and animal
food), and larger size of the food items delivered
(eg. fruits of Myristica sp., Beilschmedia spp.).
There was a drastic fall in the number of visits
during the last few days of the nesting period.
Welty (1982) proposed that the steady decline in
feeding frequency may be a naturally evolved
strategy of the parent to encourage the nearly-
fledged young to leave the nest.
The differences in the food delivered
during the nesting period can be explained by
one or a combination of the following factors:
(i) It could be related to the availability of fruits
due to the usually high seasonal and synchronous
fruiting of tree species bearing lipid-rich fruits
(Snow 1981, Leighton and Leighton 1983,
Kannan and James 1999), while the sugar-rich
fruits are available all through the year.
Community fruiting patterns in the study area
were found to be largely determined by the trees
producing lip id-rich fruits like Lauraceae,
Annonaceae, which form a major proportion of
tree species in the area (Kannan 1994). It was
observed that certain fruits such as Alseodaphne
semecarpifolia , Litsea sp., and Persea
macaranthci , which were common and abundant
in the middens during the preliminary study in
1993, were absent in 1994. So, inter-annual
differences in fruiting patterns, and intra-
seasonal staggering in the fruiting patterns of
the Lauraceae in the rainforests is likely to play
a major role in the nesting and nesting success
of the hornbills (Snow 1981, Leighton 1982,
Leighton and Leighton 1983, Kannan and James
1999).
(ii) Another possibility is that the hornbill
selects high quality nutritive food for the growing
chicks in the post-hatching phase, feeding them
largely lipid-rich fruits and animal matter, which
may be of co-evolutionary significance. The
increased delivery of animal food toward the end
of the nesting season may reflect an increase in
abundance of insect prey in the forest just after
22
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE MALABAR GREY HORNBILL
the rains. The supplementation of high quality
animal matter, however, coincides with the
hatching of the chick and may provide the
growing chick with essential nutrients.
(iii) Hombills are known to be territorial,
ranging between 3 to 30 km2 (white-throated
brown and great pied hornbills, respectively)
depending on the size of the bird (Poonswad and
Tsuji 1994). Seeds of some fruits (eg. Filicium
decipiens , Polyalthia sp.) were found in the
middens of only a few nests, probably because
these fruiting trees were abundant in the
territories of the hornbills inhabiting those
nests.
Conclusion
The Western Ghats have been identified
as one of the biodiversity hotspots in the world
(Myers 1990, 1991). However, large scale
deforestation for dam construction, agriculture
and other developmental activities has resulted
in the loss of over 40% forest cover in the last 70
years (Chattopadhyay 1985, Menon and Bawa
1997). This in turn has restricted the range of
many species, including many endemics such as
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ACKNO W LEDG EM ENTS
The research was supported by a grant from
the Oriental Bird Club, U. K. I thank R. Kannan
for guidance and encouragement and Ganesh,
my assistant, for help in field work. I thank the
Tamil Nadu Forest Department for permission
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Malabar Pied Hornbill. Jour. Ecol. Soc. 8: 23-28.
Seigel, S. & N. J. Castellan, Jr., (1988): Non-parametric
Statistics for the behavioural sciences. McGraw-Hill,
New York. 399 pp.
Snow, D. (1 98 1 ): Tropical frugivorous birds and their food
plants: a world survey. Biotropica 13: 1-14.
Tsuji, A. (1996): Hombills: Masters of tropical forests,
Hornbill Research Foundation, Bangkok
Welty, J. C. (1982): The Life of Birds. 3rd edn. Saunders
College Publishing
Whitney, K.D., M.K. Fogiel, A.M. Lamperti, K.M.
Holbrook, D.J. Stauffer, B.D. Hardesty, V.T.
Parker & T.B. Smith (1998): Seed dispersal by
Ceratogymna hombills in the Dja Reserve,
Cameroon. / Trop. Ecol. 74:351-371
24
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
SOCIOECONOMIC TRANSITION AND WILDLIFE CONSERVATION
IN THE INDIAN TRANS -HIMALAYA1
Charudutt Mishra2,3
Key words: management, protected area, policy, livestock, Uncia uncia,
Canis lupus
The founding postulate of the preservationist conservation philosophy — that local human
communities cause land degradation and biodiversity loss — is increasingly being questioned for
its scientific validity. That this postulate may not hold in many cases is being used, inter alia , in
support of calls for more inclusive conservation policies in developing countries. Such policies
would allow, or even encourage, consumptive human use of natural resources within designated
wildlife-protected areas. However, the latter approach again rests upon the assumption that local
human communities and their impacts on natural resources are constant. The present paper
questions this assumption using a case study from a hitherto isolated region of the Indian
Trans-Himalaya. I describe the ongoing socio-economic flux in an agropastoral Buddhist community
dependent upon the resources of a protected area, and the impacts of this transition on wildlife
conservation. The analysis shows radical changes in the local economy and land use in the last
decade, that ultimately proceed from extrinsic factors (market forces, changes in Government
policy). Immediate conservation problems have proximately arisen from both extrinsic
(uncontrolled tourism) as well as intrinsic (escalation of livestock stocking rate) changes. The
analysis underscores the need for conservation policies to be sensitive to the transient nature of
local human communities, even in seemingly isolated protected areas.
Introduction
The thrust of India’s conservation policy
has been preservationist, wherein emphasis has
been placed on minimising or eliminating
consumptive human uses within areas designated
for protection of wildlife. Despite such an
exclusionary official policy, more than 80 % of
Indian wildlife reserves are inhabited by local
human communities that continue to use the
natural resources in them, albeit within
state-imposed restrictions (Kothari et al. 1989).
Such restrictions on traditional resource use
following the creation of protected areas are
responsible for local hostility and the absence of
local support for conservation efforts (Kothari
et al 1995, Guha 1997, Saberwal 1997). This
'Accepted June, 1998
^Centre for Ecological Research and Conservation,
3076/5, IV, Cross Gokulam Park,
Mysore 570002, Karnataka, India.
3 Present address: Tropical Nature Conservation and Vertebrate
Ecology Group, Wageningen University, 69 Bomsesteeg, 6708
PD Wageningen, The Netherlands.
hostility gets further aggravated in the face of
serious human-wildlife conflicts in many
protected areas, and the subsequent bureaucratic
apathy faced by the local people (Guha 1997,
Mishra 1997a, Saberwal 1997, Saberwal et al.
1994) Not surprisingly then, as in many other
developing countries (Prins 1992), the merits of
the Indian preservationist approach are being
increasingly questioned on social, economic,
ethical, political, pragmatic and even ecological
grounds. Critics have contended that the
preservationist policy has been based on
scientifically unsubstantiated assumptions that
local human communities cause land degradation
and the loss of biodiversity (Saberwal 1996, Guha
1997). There is an increasing call for 'rethinking
conservation’ and embracing a more inclusive
policy, which, in theory, allows for biodiversity
conservation alongside local human resource use
(e.g. Kothari et al. 1995, Saberwal 1996).
However, the latter thesis again rests upon an
important yet unsubstantiated assumption that
views local human communities, their life-styles,
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
25
SOCIOECONOMIC TRANSITION AND WILDLIFE CONSERVA TION
and the magnitude of their impacts, as static and
immune to change (Mishra and Rawat 1998). It
is this assumption that is questioned here. The
aim is neither to denounce nor advocate the
demands for ‘democratic’ multiple use policies;
under the complex sociopolitical situations in
most developing countries, strict adherence to
either stand will prove counter-productive for
wildlife conservation. The purpose of this paper,
instead, is to show that irrespective of the official
conservation policy ( 1 ) local human communities
even in the remotest regions of the develop-
ing world are undergoing rapid social and land
use transition, (2) this transition has potentially
important consequences for wildlife conserva-
tion, and following from this, (3) conservation
policies need to be extremely sensitive to these
changes.
Focusing on three agropastoral Buddhist
villages (80 households) dependent upon the
resources of a protected area, this paper describes
the ongoing socio-economic transition in the
Spiti region (31° 42' to 32° 58' N lat. and 77°
21' to 78° 35' E long.) of the Indian
Trans-Himalaya. Located close to the politically
sensitive Sino-Indian border, in difficult
mountainous terrain, Spiti remained a remote
area with restricted geographical as well as
administrative access until 1992. In this paper,
I specifically document the socio-economic
trends in the region over the last 25 years, and
subsequently discuss their consequences for
wildlife conservation. The urgent research and
management inputs required for conservation
both at the local and regional levels are also
outlined.
Study Area
The Trans-Himalayan region includes the
high altitude plateau of Tibet and the Tibetan
marginal mountains, an area of over 2.6 million
km2. The c. 186,000 km2 within India, despite
its conservation significance, forms one of the
least represented biogeographic zones in the
Indian protected area network (Rodgers and
Panwar 1988).
The Spiti region in the Trans-Himalayan
Lahaul and Spiti dist. (Himachal Pradesh) spans
an area of 12,210 km2 in the catchment area of
the Spiti river, with a human population of 9,59 1
(in 1991; Directorate of Economics and Statistics
1996) which is largely Buddhist (Kaushik 1993).
Spiti had no wildlife reserves until the last
decade. The establishment of the 675 km2 Pin
Valley National Park (31° 44' to 32° IT N lat.,
and 77° 45' to 78° 06' E long.) in 1987, and the
1400 km2 Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary (32° 5' to
32° 30' N lat. and 78° 1' to 78° 32' E long.) in
1992, has resulted in 17% of Spiti’s land area
being designated as wildlife reserve. The
protected area boundaries, however, are only
nominal, considering they were drawn around
existing settlements and villages whose
inhabitants continue using these areas for
grazing, fuel and fodder collection.
Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary lies in the
northern catchment of Spiti and is flanked by
Ladakh to the north and Tibet to the east. The
Sanctuary, like the rest of the Trans-Himalaya,
lies in the rain shadow of the Greater Himalaya,
and ranges in altitude from c. 3,600 m to
6,700 m above msl. Temperatures range between
-30°C to 3°C in the winter, and between 1°C to
28°C in summer (Rana 1994). Vegetation in the
area has been broadly classified as dry alpine
steppe (Champion and Seth 1968). The
Sanctuary is flanked by 13 villages along its
southern boundary inhabited by an agropastoral
Buddhist community, whose agricultural
activities are restricted to the short growing
season between May and September. Barley
Hordeum vulgare and green pea Pisum sativum
are the main crops. Livestock includes goat,
sheep, cattle, yak, dzomo (female hybrid of cattle
and yak), donkey and horse. Goat, cattle and
dzomo are used for both milk and meat. Sheep
are used for wool and yaks for ploughing, in
26
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000
SOCIOECONOMIC TRANSITION AND WILDLIFE CONSER VA TION
addition to meat. Donkeys are used as draught
animals, and raised partly for trade. Horses,
apart from being used for religious ceremonies,
are raised mainly for trade (Mishra 1997a).
The mammalian fauna of the Sanctuary
includes snow leopard Uncia uncia , wolf Canis
lupus , red fox Vulpes vulpes, pale weasel Mustela
altaica, stone marten Mcirtes foina , Himalayan
mouse hare Ochotona sp., bharal Pseudois
nayaur , and ibex Capra ibex.
Methods
Unpublished archival records of the
State Government were scrutinised (see Mishra
1997a for details of sources) for information
relating to human population and past literacy
rates, livestock population, and developmental
changes in the region over the last 25 years.
Of the 13 villages surrounding Kibber Wildlife
Sanctuary, three, which together comprised 1 9%
of the population living around the park, were
selected as samples for the study (for details
see Mishra 1997a). This included Kibber, the
largest in the area (316 inhabitants), and two
small villages nearby, Gete (36) and Tashigang
(24). Structured interviews were conducted
with at least one member from each household
in the three villages, to obtain information
regarding present family size and literacy,
livestock and land holdings, and past and current
agricultural practices. Human and livestock
population growth rates (r) were calculated
using the exponential growth curve equation
(Nt = N0ert where Nt is the population at time t,
N0 is the starting population, and e the base of
natural logarithms). Crop yield per unit area was
obtained for different crops by interviewing
two experienced farmers, and the lower limit of
the reported range used to obtain a conser-
vative estimate of crop production. Casual
interviews and observations during the course
of field work yielded information on tourism and
its impacts.
Results
Human population and development
The human population in the thirteen
villages bordering Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary
increased only marginally (at an annual growth
rate of 0.09%) between 1971 and 1991 (1985
people in 1991; data for 1996 not available).
Likewise, between 1971 and 1996, the three study
villages saw a total population increase of only
6.5%, an average annual growth rate of 0.25%
(Mishra 1997a). Children <18 years comprise
49% of the present population of the study
villages. Literacy rate has doubled (from 22% to
48%) in the last 25 years. Presently, 31% of the
adult males (n = 91), and 26% of the adult
females (n = 100) are literate. In the school-going
age group (c. 5 to 1 8 years), there is 97% literacy
(n = 127). Among other indicators of
development, this period has seen an increase in
the number of schools and the electrification of
all three study villages (Table 1). Two of the three
villages, Gete and Tashigang, which earlier had
no roads, have been connected by motorable
roads.
Agriculture
The number of people per unit of irrigated
land has remained nearly constant over the last
25 years (Table 1), with the current average land
holding per household at 1.13 ha. The cropping
pattern, however, has changed in the last decade.
Prior to 1986, agriculture was for subsistence.
Table 1
PATTERNS IN SOME INDICATORS OF
DEVELOPMENT OVER THE LAST 25 YEARS IN
THREE SAMPLED VILLAGES OF
KIBBER WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
Indicator 1
971
1996
No. of medical care centres
1
1
No. of post offices
1
1
No. of schools
1
4
Irri gated land (ha)
83
91*
People per ha irri gated land
4.2
4.1
No. of villages with electricity
0
3
No. of villages connected by motorable road
1
3
*in 1987
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
27
SOCIOECONOMIC TRANSITION AND WILDLIFE CONSERVA TION
The main crops were barley and a local variety
of pea (the latter largely for supplementing
livestock feed), cultivated on two-thirds and
one-third of the land holding respectively. Since
1986, however, one-third of the land holding is
cultivated for green peas, one-third for barley,
and the remaining is partly planted with local
pea and partly left fallow. The entire harvest of
green pea is sold as a cash crop. The estimated
annual production of green pea per household is
2,587 kg, which translates into a per capita profit
(corrected for transport costs) of US$ 210 per
year (1994-95 conversion rate of 1 US$ = 31.4
Indian Rupees; World Bank 1996). The estimated
annual production of barley per household is
currently 1,294 kg.
This change in cropping pattern has
significantly affected an age-old barter trade
between the inhabitants of the study area and a
semi-nomadic pastoral community, the Changpa
of Ladakh. Changpa herders have been coming
into Spiti for at least a few centuries (Kapadia
1996). They come in summer with their livestock
(> 1,000 goat and sheep) when the high mountain
passes ( c . 5,600 m) become negotiable. The main
trade involved barley, which earlier was in
surplus, and was bartered with the Changpa
largely in exchange for wool, salt and rugs.
Owing to the replacement of barley with the
commercially valuable green pea, and the
resulting absence of surplus barley, the
development of a market economy, and the
improvement in transportation, communication,
and supplies in Spiti, this trade is on the verge
of breakdown. However, the trade continues for
Spiti horses and donkeys, which are still in
demand with the Changpa.
Livestock
The annual growth rate of livestock
holdings in the study villages increased from
2.6% (between 1971 and 1987) to 3.5% after
1987 (up to 1996; Mishra 1997a). The growth
rate of livestock throughout Spiti after 1987 was
3.2% (10,458 heads in 1988 to 1 1,881 heads in
1992). In the last 25 years, the ratio of livestock
to human population in the study villages has
increased from 1.85 (the year 1971, in Gete and
Tashigang) to 2.80 (1996, in all three villages).
In terms of herd composition, Gete and
Tashigang (data for Kibber for the year 1 97 1 were
not available) show an increase in all livestock
species between 1971 and 1987, though the
maximum increase was accounted for by goat
and sheep (42%). After 1987, the number of
donkeys and cow Idzomo declined, while the other
species continued to increase (Table 2). In Kibber,
the trend after 1987 was almost the same with
all the species except cow Idzomo continuing to
increase. Thus, in the last ten years, the
population of cow Idzomo in all the sampled
Table 2
LIVESTOCK POPULATION TRENDS OVER 25 YEARS
IN THREE SAMPLED VILLAGES (DATA POOLED FOR
THE VILLAGES GETE AND TASHIGANG) OF
KIBBER WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
Species
1971
Gete and Tashigang
* 1987 1996
Kibber village*
1987 1996
Yak
9
14
29
28
110
Cattle/
dzomo
13
32
28
113
98
Horse
6
11
18
34
57
Donkey
11
17
11
93
114
Sheep/
goat
76
101
137
322
452
Total
115
175
223
590
831
*data for 1 971 were not available
villages has declined marginally, while yak has
increased more than threefold (Table 2). Goat
and sheep again accounted for the maximum
increase (57 %) during this period.
Tourism
Prior to 1992, foreign nationals were not
allowed in Spiti, and even non-domicile Indians
needed to obtain special permits from the State
Government to enter the region. With the
relaxation of Government policy since 1992,
there has been a sudden growth in tourism.
28
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
SOCIOECONOMIC TRANSITION AND WILDLIFE CONSERVA TION
Kibber, one of the study villages, had three
functional hotels and one more under
construction when this study was conducted, as
opposed to none before 1993. These small hotels
(3-4 rooms), catering to both Indian and foreign
tourists, are run by local villagers. Many villages
of Spiti now have makeshift hotels. The tourist
inflow is restricted to between June and
September. Between June and August 1996, a
hotel owner reported a net profit of c. US$ 637
(Chering Dorje, Kibber, pers. comm. 1996).
Demand for local guides and donkeys by trekking
tourists also causes a substantial inflow of money
at the local level, which could not, however, be
quantified.
Discussion
Human population
Most habitat change and biodiversity loss
in developing countries has been attributed to
socio-economic change in growing rural
populations (Machlis 1992). The Indian
population, 74% of which is rural, has indeed
grown at an annual rate of 2. 1 7% in the past two
decades, yielding a current density of close to
300 per sq. km (Repetto 1994). In contrast, the
absolute human density of Spiti is very low
(0.78 per sq. km). The unusual absence of
population growth could largely be a consequence
of the relatively intact system of primogenitary
inheritance over most of Spiti (and polyandry in
one region) where the younger siblings become
celibate monks (Mamgain 1975, Punjab
Government 1994). The stable population size
seems to have stabilised the pressure for fuelwood
on the protected area. However, it is important
to keep in mind that most of the area in Spiti is
uninhabited due to its inhospitable cold desert
mountainous environment. Consequently, 31%
of Spiti’ s present population is concentrated in
and around the two protected areas, and is
dependent on them for grazing and fuelwood (Pin
Valley has a human population of 1500 inside
and around the National Park area; Mishra
1997b). A study estimates an annual per capita
extraction of 2 17 kg of shrubs and dung (for fuel),
and fodder (for winter supplemental feeding) by
the resident population from Pin Valley
(Bhatnagar 1996). It is also prudent to note that,
faced with modernization, other trans-Himalayan
Buddhist communities are undergoing rapid
population growth following a breakdown of
social population regulation mechanisms, and
this might happen in Spiti as well (Goldstein
1 98 1 , Fox et al. 1 994, Mishra and Humbert-Droz
1998).
Changes in agriculture and animal husbandry
The most significant socio-economic
change in the region during the last decade
has been the shift from a barter-based sub-
sistence economy, to a market economy,
resulting from, inter alia , changes in cropping
pattern. The return per household from green
pea harvest, the new cash crop, is almost as high
as the average annual per capita income for
Himachal Pradesh (US$ 248, 1994-95; World
Bank 1996).
Along with agriculture, there is indication
of commercialisation of animal husbandry as well
(livestock trade was earlier restricted to barter
with the Changpa). This is evidenced in the
three-fold increase of yaks in the last decade,
which are now partly being raised in the villages
of Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary for selling in other
areas of Spiti (Chhewang D. Zangpo, Pin Valley,
pers. comm. 1996). This contrasts with other yak
rearing communities in the Himalaya, where the
yak population is known to be declining rapidly
(Negi and Gadgil 1997, J.L. Fox pers. comm.
1996.). Between 1988 and 1992, the yak
population of Spiti increased from .786 to 897
heads.
Livestock of the study villages graze in
the Sanctuary area nearly throughout the year,
though their diet is supplemented by stall feeding
in winter. This supplemental forage is partly
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
29
SOCIOECONOMIC TRANSITION AND WILDLIFE CONSERVA TION
collected during the growing season from the
Sanctuary area, and partly from the cropfields.
In addition, the State Government has initiated
a scheme to provide supplemental feed at
subsidised rates. Given the present trend and
the augmented ability to purchase supplemental
feed, livestock holdings are likely to continue
growing in the near future. The increasing livestock
stocking rate seems to be intensifying the pressure
on the protected area resources for fodder.
Escalating livestock stocking rate is a
countrywide phenomenon in India, the last two
censuses indicating a 1.2% annual growth rate
(419 million in 1982 to 445 million in 1987).
With 67% wildlife sanctuaries and 83% national
parks subject to livestock grazing (Kothari et al. ,
1989), the urgency for evaluating the impacts of
livestock on wildlife resources is obvious. In
Kibber, the increase in stocking rate (together
with poor anti-predatory livestock management)
seems to be the main reason behind the recent
escalation in instances of livestock depredation
by large carnivores (the snow leopard and the
wolf; Mishra 1997a). Even now, livestock
outnumber bharal, the dominant wild ungulate
and natural prey of the wild carnivores, by an
order of magnitude. To reduce this depredation,
villagers have been killing the wolf, and
elsewhere, I have expressed concern that
persecution of the snow leopard is likely to begin
unless specific research and management
measures are undertaken to understand and
reduce this conflict (Mishra 1997a).
At a broader level, there is a need for
assessing the impact of grazing on plant
communities and evaluating the forage relations
between livestock and wild herbivores. The
potential for regulating livestock stocking rates
and range use to enhance conservation objectives
has long been recognised (e.g., Anderson and
Scherzinger 1975, Willms etal. 1980), and such
studies are a pre-requisite to designing effective
multiple-use management policies for Indian
protected areas.
Uncontrolled tourism
Uncontrolled tourism in wildlife reserves
has usually resulted in conservation problems
(Budowski 1976, deGroot 1983, Kenchington
1989). Kibber presently lacks even a record of
the number of tourists visiting the Sanctuary.
With the sudden development of tourism, the
age-old trade route between Kibber and Ladakh
(used by the Changpa ; c. 125 km) has now
become a popular trekking route. This route
passes along wetlands in Ladakh that are
important breeding sites for water birds,
including rare and threatened species (Mishra
and Humbert-Droz 1998). A rather conspicuous
impact of this tourism has been the pollution of
this route with discarded garbage (including
non-degradable metal cans and polythene),
especially around about 15 camping sites.
In addition, Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary, like
some other regions of Spiti, has deposits of
nautiloid, balamnite, and ammonite fossils (Y.V.
Bhatnagar, pers. comm. 1997). Locals reported
that fossils were being removed from the area
even before Spiti was opened to tourists.
However, this was confined to geologists and
amateur collectors. Tourism has now created a
market for fossils, which is causing a rapid
depletion of the fossil reserves of Kibber Wildlife
Sanctuary and elsewhere in Spiti. Depending
upon its size and quality, a fossil may fetch US$
3 to USS 15. I could not, however, assess the
magnitude of this trade. The need for a culturally
and ecologically well designed tourism plan for
Spiti is apparent, and has already been expressed
(Kaushik 1993, 1994).
Conclusions
Spiti remained geographically as well as
politically remote and isolated until 1992, and
the so far intact social population regulation
mechanisms have kept the local human
population under control. However, a rapid
socio-economic transition is in progress,
30
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
SOCIOECONOMIC TRANSITION AND WILDLIFE CONSERVA TION
exemplified by improvements in transporta-
tion, increase in literacy, changes in cropping
pattern (the adoption of a cash crop), breakdown
of barter trade, expansion of livestock holdings,
and a sudden development of an unplanned
tourism industry. This is ultimately driven by
far-reaching extrinsic factors such as the
influence of commercial markets and changes
in Government policy. The transition from a
subsistence (barter-based) economy to a market
economy, and changes in land use in Kibber
Wildlife Sanctuary, have resulted in conservation
problems such as the escalation of
human- wildlife conflict (livestock depredation by
wild carnivores), increased pressure on the
protected area for fodder, pollution, and the
depletion of fossil reserves. These have
proximately been brought about by intrinsic
(escalating livestock stocking rates) as well as
extrinsic (tourism) factors.
This paper joins a growing body of
literature documenting the significant influence
of market forces even in relatively remote regions
of the developing world (e.g. Goldstein 1981,
Goldstein and Beall 1989, Fox et al. 1994, Negi
and Gadgil 1997, Mishra and Humbert-Droz
1998). It further shows that the resultant
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Acknowledgements
I thank Dr. K. Ullas Karanth, the Wildlife
Conservation Society, Bronx, NY, and the
Netherlands Foundation for the Advancement of
Tropical Research (WOTRO), a body residing
under the Netherlands Organization for Scientific
Research (NWO) for financial support. My
gratitude for technical support to the Department
of Forest Farming and Conservation, Himachal
Pradesh, and the Director, Wildlife Institute of
India. I thank Y.V. Bhatnagar, K. Bhatnagar, T.
Dorje, Dr. J.L. Fox, L. Gyalson, N. Manjrekar,
and B.S. Rana, for discussions; Dr. S.P. Goyal
and Dr. A.J.T. Johnsingh for encouragement, and
Dr. R.S. Chundawat, Dr. S.N. Mishra,
Madhusudan Katti, and T.R.S. Raman for
comments. The contribution of M.D.
Madhusudan in restructuring the paper is
gratefully acknowledged.
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32
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1). APR. 2000
AN ECOLOGICAL STUDY OF CROCODILES
IN RUHUNA NATIONAL PARK, SRI LANKA1
Charles Santiapillai, Mangala de Silva2, Sarath Dissanayake3,
B. V.R. Jayaratne4 and S. Wijeyamohan5
( With three text-figures)
Key words: Marsh crocodile, Crocodylus palustris, estuarine crocodile, C. porosus ,
Ruhuna National Park, basking, feeding, conservation
A study was carried out in Block I (140 sq. km) of the Ruhuna National Park (RNP)
opportunistically from October 1 99 1' to October 1 994, in order to study the two species of crocodiles
occurring in Sri Lanka, viz. Crocodylus palustris and C. porosus. A total of 341 sightings of the
two species were made on 77 occasions, 307 sightings on C. palustris and 34 sightings on
C. porosus. Among C. palustris , solitary animals made up most of the observations (55.8%)
while pairs accounted for 13.0%. Of the 22 water-holes that were surveyed, 13 (59%) had only
one crocodile. Although both species could be seen at any time of the day, the number basking
increased with the increase in the ambient temperature, and peaked around noon. C. porosus
basked alone, and C. palustris communally. The population structure consisted of 44% hatchlings,
6% juveniles, 24% subadults and 26% adults. Only adults of C. porosus were observed. Hatchling
losses can be very high through predation by birds and mammals. Both species feed on a variety
of food, ranging in size from aquatic insects and Crustacea (in hatchlings) to fish, frogs, birds and
large mammals (in adults). The minimum crude density values for C. palustris and C. porosus
are estimated to be 0.72 and 0.07 animals per sq. km respectively. The populations of both
species in Block I appear to be secure and viable.
Introduction
Of the 13 species of ‘true’ crocodiles
(Subfamily: Crocodylinae) that are extant in the
world, 8 species occur in Asia, of which 2 are
found in Sri Lanka, namely the freshwater, or
marsh crocodile, or mugger ( Crocodylus
palustris) and the saltwater or estuarine crocodile
(C. porosus). While C. palustris is listed as
‘vulnerable’ by IUCN (Groombridge, 1993), C.
porosus has been transferred to the Tow risk’
category, given the tens of thousands known to
‘Accepted April, 1999
department ofZoology, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
?National Wildlife Training Centre, Giritale, Sri Lanka
JWasgomuwa National Park, Hasalaka, Sri Lanka
'Faculty of Applied Sciences,
Vavuniya Campus of the Jaffna University,
Vavuniya, Sri Lanka
be present in numerous localities across its
geographical range. However, in Sri Lanka,
given its low number and restricted distribution,
C. porosus is more threatened than C. palustris.
According to Whitaker and Whitaker (1989),
“Sri Lanka has more mugger crocodiles than the
rest of the subcontinent put together, mostly
concentrated in the two national parks, Yala
(=RNP) and Wilpattu.” Even though this may
not be strictly true now, it indicates the high
number of mugger crocodiles still occurring in
Sri Lanka. Both species found in Sri Lanka are
listed in Appendix I of the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of
Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).
Crocodiles were once plentiful in Sri
Lanka. The man-made reservoirs or tanks in the
Dry Zone were teeming with crocodiles (Baker
JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000
33
ECOLOGICAL STUDY OF CROCODILES IN RUHUNA NATIONAL PARK
1853; Tennent 1859; Hennessey 1949). But
today, both species have declined in range and
number as a result of poaching and loss of habitat.
Crocodiles are almost confined to the first
peneplain in Sri Lanka. They represent an
excellent renewable natural resource and,
therefore, their conservation can be made much
easier if such a resource is used for the benefit of
the people who share the land with them (Child,
1987). Unfortunately, crocodiles have a poor
image in Sri Lanka. They are considered
dangerous, and few would really regret their
disappearance. The general public is unaware of
the beneficial role played by crocodiles in
wetlands. Legislation alone cannot save a species
if the public is against its conservation. As Sale
(1985) points out, a sound scientific
understanding of a natural resource is
fundamental to the management of that resource.
Nowhere is this more true than in Sri Lanka,
where the aims of crocodile management are
straightforward preservation of the species within
protected areas, with no interest in utilization
despite the high economic value of the skin. So
far, there has been no ecological study of
crocodiles in Sri Lanka. Deraniyagala (1953)
provides detailed information on the taxonomy,
range and ecology of the two species of crocodile
in Sri Lanka, while Whitaker and Whitaker
(1979) carried out the first comprehensive survey
of crocodiles in Sri Lanka. More recently, Porej
(1997) studied the distribution of the two species
along the south-western coast of Sri Lanka. An
island-wide reassessment of their status was
carried out by Santiapillai & de Silva (1998,
under review).
Study Area
The study was carried out in Block I of the
Ruhuna National Park, in southeast Sri Lanka
in the low country Dry Zone (Fig.l). Block I is
about 140 sq. km in extent, and is separated from
the rest of the park by the Menik Ganga (= river)
in the northeast. The vegetation of the park has
been classified by Mueller-Dombois (1972) into
three physiognomic categories: (a) forest (with
at least 20% of crown biomass above 5m in
height), (b) scrub (less than 20% of crown
biomass above 5m), and (c) grassland or plains.
The dominant forest trees are Manilkara
hexandra (palu), Drypetes sepiaria (weera) in
well drained soil, and Limonia acidissima (divul)
and Salvadora persica (malithan) in poorly
drained areas (Balasubramaniam et «/., 1980).
The coastal region in Block I has numerous
water-holes of varying size and salinity,
surrounded by grasslands where the main species
are Eragrostis viscosa, Dactyl otaenium
aegyptium , Sporobolus diandrus , Echinochloa
colonum, Setaria pallidifusca and Alloteropsis
cimicina (Balasubramaniam et al. , 1980). The
fauna includes threatened species such as the
Asian elephant Elephas maximus (E), leopard
Panthera pardus (T), sloth bear Ursus ursinus
(I), and water buffalo Bubalus buba'lis (V). In
addition, there are several herbivores: wild pig
Sus scrofa , sambar Cervus unicolor , spotted deer
Axis axis and mouse deer Tragulus meminna ,
which are potential prey species of the crocodiles.
Other reptiles include the common monitor lizard
Varanus bengalensis, cobra Naja naja, Russell’s
viper Daboia russelli. At least three species of
sea turtles, the green Chelonia mydas (E), olive
Ridley Lepidochelys olivacea (E) and
leatherback Dermochelys coriacea (E), nest
along the beach (Hewavisenthi, 1990). The most
numerous crocodile in Ruhuna National Park is
the marsh crocodile or mugger (C. palustris).
Methods
The study on crocodiles was incidental to
a much larger study on the mammals of the
Ruhuna National Park and was carried out in
Block I opportunistically from October 1991 to
October 1994. All observations were made from
a vehicle, using a pair of 7 x 52 binoculars, from
34
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
ECOLOGICAL STUDY OF CROCODILES IN RUHUNA NATIONAL PARK
Menik
Pannagamuwak~-o
Fig. 1 : Map of Block I of Ruhuna National Park showing the waterholes
0600 to 1 900 hr, during which time most of the
water-holes in the park were visited. At every
sighting of crocodiles, their number, location,
habitat and behaviour were noted. Whenever
possible, the species was identified based on field
criteria such as the shape of the dorsal osteoderms
— subquadrangular plates transversely sutured
to one another in C. palustris , and ovoid and
separated by skin in C. porosus (Deraniyagala,
1953). But this was not easy, for as Daniel (1983)
points out, the two species are difficult to
distinguish in the field. When the two species
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
35
ECOLOGICAL STUDY OF CROCODILES IN RUHUNA NA TIONAL PARK
are in water, they are almost impossible to tell
apart. Besides, smaller individuals are difficult
to distinguish in the field. Wherever possible,
the length of the animals was estimated visually.
Four categories were recognized: hatchlings
(<0.5 m), juveniles (0. 5-1.0 m), subadults
(1. 1-2.0 m), and adults (>2 m). The crocodiles
were also monitored from 0600 to 1900 hrs at
Buttuwa Wewa during the peak of the dry season
in early October 1991, just prior to the northeast
monsoon rains, to study their basking behaviour.
An attempt was made to estimate the minimum
number and density of crocodiles by taking into
account the maximum number recorded from
each waterhole within a sampling session (7-10
days).
Results
A total of 341 crocodiles (of both species)
were recorded in 77 observations, of which 307
sightings were on C. pcilustris and 34 on C.
porosus. Among C. porosus, solitary animals
made up 55.8%, while pairs accounted for 13.0%
(Fig. 2). The largest group seen during the survey
consisted of 44 animals (39, C. pcilustris and 5,
C. porosus ), in the Buttuwa reservoir. It is likely
that many of the pairs observed in Buttuwa
reservoir are adult male and female marsh
crocodiles. Of the 22 water-holes that were
surveyed, 13 (59%) had only one crocodile
(C. pcilustris) each. Crocodiles were observed to
move from one waterhole to another during the
dry season. As the dry season progresses from
May to September, many of the smaller water-
holes become bone dry, and the crocodiles
(C. pcilustris ), move either to large water-holes
such as the Buttuwa Wewa, Wilapala Wewa,
Keen Wewa and Katagamuwa tank, or
concentrate along the Menik Ganga. In the dry
season, one crocodile (C. pcilustris) was observed
more than a kilometre from the nearest water-
hole in the neighbouring Block II. At the peak
of the drought, marsh crocodile numbers along
% of observations
36
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
ECOLOGICAL STUDY OF CROCODILES IN RUHUNA NATIONAL PARK
the banks of Menik ganga can be as high as 35
animals per km. Furthermore, if the drought is
prolonged, the Menik ganga mostly dries up,
leaving scattered pools of water along the banks.
These pools, which are no more than 0.5 m in
depth, and a few sq. m in area, may be inhabited
by up to 4 marsh crocodiles. The largest estuarine
crocodile seen measured about 3.0 m at
Diganwala, while the largest marsh crocodile was
about 2.5 m at Gonalabba lagoon.
Table 1
SIZE AND COMPOSITION OF MARSH CROCODILES
(C. PALUSTRIS) IN RNF (N = 50)
size class (m)
number
percentage
category
<0.5
22
44
hatchling
0.5-1 .0
3
6
juvenile
1 .0-2.0
12
24
subadult
>2.0
13
26
adult
When the maximum number observed in
each waterhole within a sampling session (7-10
days) was taken into account, there were 101
marsh crocodiles and 10 estuarine crocodiles in
Block I. This amounts to a minimum crude
density of 0.72 per sq. km of C. pdlustris , and
0.07 per sq. km of C. porosus in Block I. Among
C. palustris, 44% were hatchlings, 6% were
juveniles, 24% subadults, while sexually mature
animals made up 26% (Table 1). The observed
C. porosus were all adults. However, the
hatchlings and juveniles taken as C. palustris
may have included some C. porosus as well, since
these two species are difficult to distinguish in
the field from a distance, especially when they
are small. Crocodiles could not be sexed in the
field.
Crocodiles were seen throughout much of
the day, either in water, or basking on land. In
Block I, both species were observed basking on
the embankment of the reservoirs or on the banks
of rivers and streams. The pattern of basking
observed at Buttuwa Wewa was generally the
same in both species (Fig. 3). The ambient
temperature increased as the day progressed, and
there was a substantial increase in the number
number of crocodiles
600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800
time
C. palustris
C. porosus
Fig. 3: Pattern of basking activity shown by both species of crocodile
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
37
ECOLOGICAL STUDY OF CROCODILES INRUHUNA NA TIONAL PARK
of C. palustris observed basking, with the
maximum number recorded from 1 1 00 to 1 200
hrs. A much smaller number of C. porosus, while
showing a similar trend, were observed basking
from 0800 hrs, reaching a peak from 1100 to
1500 hrs, and subsequently declining until 1700
hrs. Another behavioural difference that may help
in the identification of species in the field
concerns basking. Marsh crocodiles were seen
basking communally, while estuarine crocodiles
were never observed basking together. However,
the estuarine crocodile was also seen basking in
the company of marsh crocodiles. While basking,
one C. palustris was observed defaecating, after
which it moved its hind leg over the pile of faeces
and shifted its hind parts a little away, then
continued basking. Basking crocodiles varied in
the length of time they kept their mouths open,
the maximum period being 2 hrs.
Both species of crocodile were observed
feeding on frogs, which are abundant in almost
all the water-holes in Block I. In the dry season,
frogs may form a substantial part of the
crocodiles’ diet at the smaller water-holes where
there are no fish or crustaceans such as crabs or
prawns, since the water-holes dry up. However,
in the lagoons such as Gonalabba, Uraniya and
larger water-holes at Heenwewa, Wilapala Wewa
or Palatupana, into which Tilapia were
introduced, crocodiles fed largely on such fish.
Two marsh crocodiles were seen at night
attacking a dead buffalo, in Uraniya plains.
Marsh crocodiles were also observed feeding on
the carcass of spotted deer, and sambar. In the
present study, estuarine crocodiles were not
observed feeding on carrion, although it is quite
likely that they do. They were not observed doing
so, though they were seen at night away from
the water-holes. Marsh crocodiles were seen
pulling the carcasses either from land or near
the water’s edge into water and eating them.
Once the carcass is under water, it is out of reach
of other scavengers such as jackal ( Canis aureus)
and wild pig ( Sus scrofa). In Ruhuna National
Park, crocodiles of both species catch most of
their terrestrial prey near the edge of the water.
Much of the feeding appears to take place at
night.
Hatchling losses can be very high due to
predation. In Block I, hatchlings were seen
among the roots of Rhizophora trees in the
mangroves at Buttuwa, where the prop-roots form
a three dimensional mesh, which even some large
wading birds find difficult to penetrate. The only
birds large enough to attack hatchlings are the
black-necked stork ( Ephippiorhynchus
asiaticus), lesser adjutant stork ( Leptoptilos
javanicus ), spot-billed or grey pelican ( Pelecanus
roseus ), and raptors such as crested hawk eagle
(Spizaetus cirrhatus), crested serpent eagle
( Spilornis cheela), brahminy kite (Haliastur
indus) and white -bellied sea eagle ( Haliaeetus
leucogaster). According to Park officials, egg
predation by jackal ( Canis aureus ), monitor
lizard (Varanus bengalensis) and wild pig can
be substantial.
Discussion
In addition to the crocodiles that were
observed in Block I of RNP, another 150-200
marsh crocodiles were recorded from the
Katagamuwa Wewa (Fauna International Trust,
1993; de Silva, pers. obs.), which lies just outside
the northwest comer of Block I (Fig. 1). As these
marsh crocodiles regularly move in and out of
Block I, they could be considered a part of the
crocodile population of Block I. If these
crocodiles are also taken into account, then the
minimum cmde density of the marsh crocodile
in Block I could be as high as 1.99-2.16 animals
per sq. km. Marsh crocodiles live in groups, but
male estuarine crocodiles, being aggressive and
highly territorial, tend to live alone. Furthermore,
in estuarine crocodiles, the large territorial males
may service a number of females, and thus keep
potential competitors at bay (Webb and Manolis,
1989). This may explain the movement of some
38
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
ECOLOGICAL STUDY OF CROCODILES IN RU HUN A NA TIONAL PARK
males far into the interior, away from the
estuaries. The number of crocodiles inhabiting a
particular waterhole depends not only on the
productivity of the waterhole, but also on its size.
Usually, large waterholes such as Wilapala Wewa
and Buttuwa Wewa support relatively large
numbers of crocodiles, in particular C. palustris,
all year round.
In general, female crocodiles grow more
slowly and reach maturity at a smaller size than
males, which continue growing and usually
exceed females in maximum size (Ross, 1998).
According to Webb and Manolis (1989), in
saltwater crocodiles, the females reach sexual
maturity at the age of 12 years (2.3 m total
length), while the males become sexually mature
at the age of 16 years (3.4 m total length). But
female marsh crocodiles of 6 years and 8 months
of age (2.2 m) have also been known to reach sexual
maturity in India (Whitaker and Whitaker, 1989).
As crocodiles cannot maintain a constant
body temperature by physiological means,
heating and cooling are of particulai importance
to them (Webb and Manolis, 1989). Crocodilians
have a preferred body temperature of about
30-33°C, and to achieve this temperature range,
they move to and fro between water and land.
Basking crocodiles usually orient themselves in
such a way as to get the maximum exposure to
the sun. But as their body gets heated, they reduce
the heat uptake by turning and facing the sun,
and opening their mouth to cool the brain
through evaporative cooling (Webb and Manolis,
1989). Crocodiles in general are very sluggish,
and their short periods of activity are usually
followed by long periods of inactivity. Wading
birds were seen feeding quite close to the basking
crocodiles.
Crocodiles are very effective aquatic
predators. They are also opportunistic feeders,
and catholic in their diet. Most wild crocodiles
are known to be attracted to carrion (Webb and
Manolis, 1989). In Katagamuwa tank, marsh
crocodiles are known to feed communally on fish,
when water is low (Fauna International Trust,
1993). Although game animals fall prey to
crocodiles, such predation is unlikely to have a
significant effect on their numbers. It is likely
that the bulk of the crocodiles’ food in the park
consists of fish, frogs and water birds, which are
most abundant the year round. As the dry season
progresses, many of the water-holes dry up. Fish
become concentrated in a few water-holes, which
attract crocodiles from other areas. Crocodiles
can go for months without feeding (Whitaker and
Whitaker, 1989). They are known to feed on a
variety of food items that range in size from
freshwater mussels to water buffalo (Webb and
Manolis, 1989). Their food changes with their
size: beginning with aquatic insects, Crustacea,
small fish, and as they grow larger, vertebrates
such as fish, turtles, birds and mammals (Ross,
1998). Much of the feeding appears nocturnal,
for which they are well equipped with good eye
sight. The retinal tapetum situated at the back of
the eyeball is an image intensifier, allowing
crocodiles to see better even in low light
intensities (Webb and Manolis, 1989).
The predators on crocodile hatchlings,
apart from those observed in Block I, include
larger crocodiles, freshwater turtles, large
predatory fish and python (Webb & Manolis,
1989). Although crocodiles lay many eggs, only
1 % of the hatchlings may survive to maturity,
largely due to predation. The estuarine crocodile
also suffers heavy losses when flash floods
inundate estuaries where its mound nests are
found.
Given the high number of crocodiles,
especially marsh crocodiles, present in Block I
of RNP, and the fact that these animals maintain
genetic exchange with crocodiles from the rest
of the Park, it is clear that both species of
crocodile present in Block I constitute secure and
viable populations. Factors such as desiccation
of eggs during severe drought and avian
predation on hatchlings appear to help regulate
crocodile numbers in the Park.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
39
ECOLOGICAL STUDY OF CROCODILES IN RUHUNA NA TIONAL PARK
Conservation and Management
There has never been any conservation
programme designed specifically for crocodiles
in Sri Lanka. While, they are being killed as
vermin or poached for meat and skin outside the
protected areas, their prospects for long-term
survival appear good in a few protected areas
such as the Ruhuna National Park in the
southeast and the Wilpattu National Park in the
northwest. The policy of allowing nature to
follow its own course appears to have benefited
crocodiles within these protected areas.
Crocodiles being large predators, require very
large areas of undisturbed wetlands to survive
(Ross, 1998). Such areas are becoming
increasingly difficult to find in Sri Lanka, as a
result of the increase of its human population,
currently estimated to be over 18 million.
Therefore, protected areas appear to be the last
refuge for wildlife. There have been no recent
reports of crocodiles being poached within the
Park, although several were killed outside.
The approach to management of crocodiles
in the park is therefore a conservative one, in
that the crocodile habitats are secure and remote
from centres of high human population. So far,
management measures have boosted the numbers
of the crocodiles inside RNP. The crocodile, being
an exceptionally adaptable predator, is able to
survive on a broad spectrum of prey species. So
the emphasis in crocodile conservation policy
Refer
Baker, S. W.H. ( 1 853): The Rifle and the Hound in Ceylon.
Repr. 1970. Tisara Prakasakyo, Dehiwela.
Balasubramaniam, S., C. Santiapillai & M.R. Chambers
(1980): Seasonal shifts in the pattern of habitat
utilization by the spotted deer ( Axis Erxleben, 1 777)
in the Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka. Spixiana.
3: 157-166.
Bellairs, A. d’A. (1987): The Crocodilia. 5-7. In: (eds.)
G.J.W. Webb, S.C. Manolis, & PJ. Whitehead.
Wildlife Management: Crocodiles and Alligators.
Surrey Beatty & Sons, Chipping Norton, Australia.
Child, G. F. T. ( 1 987): The management of crocodiles in
must be on maintaining a variety of prey, and
preventing the pollution and destruction of the
Park’s wetlands. The national parks, however,
remote from human population centres, are still
prone to environmental disturbances outside their
boundaries.
The crocodile is well adapted to respond
to a “sanctuary strategy”. There are good grounds
to believe that it will increase in number under
protection, which is by far easier, cheaper and
more likely to be successful, than re-introduction.
Local people strongly object to the translocation
of a potentially dangerous predator such as the
crocodile, to their neighbourhood. Law
enforcement will become ineffective in the face
of public hostility to crocodiles. The
dissemination of factual information on
crocodiles and their role in the ecosystem may
help change the people’s attitude.
In the final analysis, the survival of
crocodiles is intimately linked with their
acceptance by local people and the attitude of
their politicians. What is needed is the widest
possible acceptance of crocodiles as a renew able
natural resource. Their conservation can be
made easier, if this resource is used for the
benefit of the people who share the land with
them (Child, 1987). If crocodiles are properly
managed, either in farms or as wild populations,
they can become a considerable economic asset
to the countries that contain them (Bellairs,
1987).
E N C E S
Zimbabwe. 49-62. In: (eds.) G.J.W. Webb, S.C.
Manolis & P.J. Whitehead. Wildlife Management:
Crocodiles and Alligators. Surrey Beatty & Sons,
Chipping Norton, Australia.
Daniel, J.C. (1983): The Book of Indian Reptiles.Bombay
Natural History Society, Bombay.
Deraniyagala, P.E.P. ( 1 953): A Coloured Atlas of some
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ECOLOGICAL STUDY OF CROCODILES IN RUHUNA NA TIONAL PARK
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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
41
SEXUAL HARASSMENT AMONG FEMALE LION-TAILED MACAQUES
{MAC AC A SILENUS) IN THE WILD1
Ajith Kumar2
(With three text-figures)
Key words: reproductive suppression, sexual swelling, Maccica silenus , mounting frequency
Adult female lion-tailed macaques often harass sexually interacting adult male and female members
of the group. The extent of harassment and its implication for reproduction by females was
studied in a group in the Anaimalai (presently Indira Gandhi) Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu,
India. Nearly 1 560 hours of observation were made on the same group during nine months in
1979-80 and 15 months in 1982-84. A total of 577 sexual interactions between single adult male
and females were recorded. Most of the sexual mountings occurred when the females had sexual
swelling with a peak 2-4 days prior to deflation of the swelling. Most of the harassment was by
females with sexual swelling. Harassment decreased the probability of mating taking place once
a sexual interaction had been initiated (from 0.582 to 0.07). Aggressive harassment significantly
reduced the duration of mating (from 9.12 secs to 6.16 secs), and thus probably prevented
ejaculation. The percentage of sexual interactions that were harassed increased with the number
of females with sexual swelling. Postponement of conception due to harassment might be a
major reason for the absence of a synchrony in conceptions and births similar to that seen in
sexual swelling soon after the summer amenorrhea. Sexual harassment is unlikely to serve as a
behavioural means of population regulation. This is because fewer females show sexual swelling
as the group becomes larger, probably due to increasing competition for food resources. The
major reason for the occurrence of sexual harassment in the lion-tailed macaque might be
competition among females for mating. This competition results from a high synchrony in sexual
swelling among the females, the tendency for groups to have only one adult male, a high female
to male (5:1) ratio, and multiple mount pattern in the male.
Introduction
Reproductive suppression of ovulating
females occurs in some primates. In
Theropithecus gelada, females actively disrupt
each other’s copulation (Mori, 1979). In the same
species anovulatory cycles and premature
termination of menstrual cycles and implantation
occur in low ranking females from social stress
due to harassment by high ranking females
(Dunbar, 1980). Reproductive suppression from
social stress also occurs in Papio cynocephalus
(Wasser, 1983). In captivity, female rhesus
monkeys could be prevented from mating by
'Accepted June, 1998
:Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History
Ana ikatti, Coimbatore 641 108,
Tamil Nadu, India.
aggression from high ranking females (Keveme,
1983). Reproductive suppression of ovulating
females has also been demonstrated in captive
Miopithecus talapoin (Abbot et al. , 1986). In
marmoset monkeys ( Callithrix jacchus)
ovulation by subordinate females is physio-
logically suppressed by the mere presence of the
dominant females (Abbot, 1988).
Lion-tailed macaque, Confined to the rain
forests of the Western Ghats of South India,
mostly live in one male units with a mean group
size of 18-20 animals (Kumar, 1995a). The
reproductive biology is characterized by a high
sex ratio in favour of females ( 1 :5), a conspicuous
sexual swelling phase to which compulatory
mountings are mostly confined, and a low birth
rate (0.30/female year) compared to other
macaques (Kumar 1987, 1995a). There is also a
42
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1). APR. 2000
SEXUAL HARASSMENT AMONG FEMALE LION- TAILED MA CA QUES
high degree of synchrony in the incidence of
sexual swelling among the females. Harassment
of the mating pair by others, especially by adult
females, is frequent. This study examines the
extent of harassment of matings pairs and its
implication for reproduction by the females.
Whether such harassment could play a
population regulatory role is also discussed, since
birth rate has been found to decrease with
increasing group size (Kumar, 1995b).
Methods
The analysis is based primarily on data
collected during an ecological study on one group
in the Anaimalai (presently Indira Gandhi)
Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu State, from
March 1979 to March 1980, and from December
1982 to March 1984. The group was located in
Varagaliyar shola, about 25 km south of Top Slip,
the Sanctuary headquarters. Varagaliyar shola is
about 20 sq. km in area and is the largest of the
rain forest fragments in the Sanctuary. This shola
had five or six groups of lion-tailed macaque.
The main study group had only one adult male
during both the study periods. There was no
Table 1
COMPOSITION OF THE MAIN STUDY GROUP IN THE
INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
IN 1979-80 AND 1982-84
Year
Adult
males
Subadult
males
Adult
females
Immatures
Total
Jan 1979
1
0
5
6
12
Mar 1980
1
0
5
9
15
Dec 1982
1
1
6
9
17
Mar 1984
1
1
9
12
23
subadult male in 1979-80, and one in 1982-84.
The number of adult females varied from 5 in
1979-80 to 9 in 1982-84 (Table 1).
Data on the incidence and duration of
sexual cycles come from records on the sexual
status (presence or absence of swelling) of
females in the study group. These records were
made during five to eight days of dawn to dusk
observation of the group every month, and at least
once in a week during the remaining part of the
month. All sexual interactions between the adult
male and females were recorded ad libitum
during dawn to dusk observation, along with the
sexual status of the female. The copulatory calls
of the females (see below), given during more
than 80% of the sexual mounting and audible
up to 75 m, was used as an indicator of mounting.
Mounting frequency/hour was estimated for each
day by dividing the number of mountings (seen
and heard) by the number of hours of observation.
Only days with dawn to dusk observation were
selected for analyses, since mounting showed a
strong diurnal variation. Five to eight days of
such observations were earned out each month
between March 1979 and January 1980 (except
for July and August when no data was collected)
and again between December 1982 and February
1984 (except for January and February 1984
when only two days of observations were done
each month). A total of 631 hours of ad libitum
records were made in nine months in 1979-80
and 937 hours in 15 months in 1982-84. Besides
the study group, six other groups were monitored
at intervals of 30-40 days in 1979-80 and 1982-
84. Data on seasonality of births were taken from
these groups (see Kumar, 1987).
Results
Female Sexual Cycle: The female sexual
cycle in the lion- tailed macaque is characterized
by the cyclical appearance of sexual swelling in
the perineal region and at the base of the tail
which is conspicuous (Fooden, 1975). The
swelling phase had a mean length of 14.1 days
(range 8-19 days, n=7) and the non-swelling
phase had a mean length of 16.4 days (range 6-
25, n=7). The combined duration of these phases
gave a mean cycle length of 30.5 days. More than
80% of the mountings by the adult male occurred
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
43
SEXUAL HARASSMENT AMONG FEMALE LION-TAILED MA CA QUES
Fig. 1 : Mounting frequency (per hour) by the adult male on successive days of a sexual swelling cycle of a
female: mean for six sexual cycles. The sexual cycles were aligned by the day on which the swellings
disappeared (day 0).
when the female had sexual swelling. Nearly
84% of these mountings were accompanied by
copulatory calls of the females, compared to only
9.1% in the case of females without swelling (x2
= 24.9, df=l,/?<0.001 ). The mounting frequency
started to increase 3 to 4 days before the
appearance of the swelling and reached a peak
(of about 3/hour) four days prior to its
disappearance. It then dropped abruptly almost
to zero on the last day of swelling (Fig. 1). The
interval between the appearance of the swelling
and peak sexual activity varied from 10 to 15
days, with a mean of 12.2 days (n=6).
When data from 1979-80 and 1982-84
were combined, swellings were seen in the study
group m all months of the year except March
and April. In May, swelling was seen only in the
last week in 1979 and none in 1983 (Fig. 2).
Although there are no systematic data from the
other groups, no swellings were seen in them
during March-May of 1979 and 1983. It appears.
therefore, that there is a summer amenorrhea in
the lion-tailed macaque in the months of March
and April, probably extending to May. There was
a synchrony of sexual cycles in the study group
soon after the first cycle following the summer
amenorrhea (Fig. 2). In 1979, the sexual cycle
of two females started in the last week of May,
and in June all the five females of the group had
sexual cycles. The sexual cycle of two subadult
females started only in September-October. All
the four adult females which showed swelling in
1982-83 did so in synchrony in October 1983,
one sexual cycle after the first cycle of the season.
(Four of the remaining five females were in post-
partum amenorrhea. The fifth, the oldest female
of the group, did not show swelling in 1982-84).
The cycle of the subadult female started only one
month later.
Sexual Harassment: Sexual harassment
consisted of activities by members of the group
that apparently interfered with sexual
44
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1), APR. 2000
SEXUAL HARASSMENT AMONG FEMALE LION- TAILED MA CA QUES
Months (1979-80)
Months (1983-84)
| | One sexual swelling cycle
| Sexual swellings leading to conception
Fig. 2: The distribution of sexual cycles and conceptions in the adult females of the study group
in 1970-80 and 1982-84.
interactions between adult male and female. Such
interference occurred in 12.8% of the 577 sexual
interactions observed. Interference occurred at
the premounting stage (i.e. after the initiation of
sexual interaction but before mounting) or at the
mounting stage. Most of the interference were
at the latter stage (70.3%).
Out of 74 harassments recorded, 23.0%
were by infants and juveniles. These occurred
mostly at the mounting stage, and consisted of
rushing to the mating pair, and then moving
about rapidly in short arcs about 2-3 m away
(with tail-wagging and uttering ‘ uh uh ’ sounds)
until the mounting was over. Mountings
involving females with and without sexual
swellings were equally harassed by the immatures
(Fisher exact test p= 0.33). Moreover, mounting
did not appear to discontinue as a result of such
harassment.
Harassment by the subadult and adult
females was related to the sexual status of the
female interacting with the male. In 1982-84.
11.9% of the 270 sexual interactions involving
females with swelling were harassed by other
adult females, while none of the 69 mountings
involving females without swelling were
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
45
SEXUAL HARASSMENT AMONG FEMALE LION-TAILED MACAQUES
harassed (%2=7.7, df=l, /?<0.01). In 1979-80,
13.1% of the 145 sexual interactions involving
females with swelling were harassed by other
adult females as opposed to only 2.2% of 90
sexual interactions involving female without
sexual swelling (%2=6.8, df=l, /?<0.01). About
5.2% of the sexual interactions were harassed
by the subadult and adult females at the pre-
mounting stage and a further 12.1% at the
mounting stage.
Harassment at the pre-mounting stage
consisted of a female presenting to the adult male
while another female was presenting, often
between the male and the first female. Sometimes
a female rushed to a presenting female with
aggressive calls and chased it away from the male
or physically prevented the male from mounting
by pulling it by the tail or by standing in the
way. Harassment at the premounting stage
occasionally resulted in the redirection of
mounting to the harasser (21.4%). More often it
prevented mounting from taking place. The
percentage of sexual initiations which ended in
mounting when harassed by adult females (7.0%)
was significantly lower than those which were
not harassed (58.2%, %2=12.0, df=l, /?<0.001).
Harassment at the mounting stage
consisted of rushing to the pair with growls, and
chasing and often physically attacking the
female. Presenting in front of the mounted pair
was also seen. Mounting of the harasser soon
after mounting the harassed female occurred in
1 1 . 1 % of the cases. When harassment was overtly
aggressive the harassed female often ran or
jumped away before the male had dismounted.
Significantly fewer of the harassed mountings
were accompanied by copulatory calls (63.3%)
than those which were not harassed (83.6%,
X2=4.6, df=l, p<0.05). Harassed mountings had
a shorter duration (mean=7.75 secs, s.e=0.89,
n=12), than normal mountings (mean=9. 12 secs,
s.e=0.35, n=95). However, duration of only those
which were aggressively harassed (mean=6.16
secs. s.e=0.72, n=9) was significantly shorter
(/-test, t= 2.6, p< 0.05).
In short, harassment (a) was mostly by
adult females with sexual swelling; (b) was
targeted at females with sexual swelling (c)
drastically decreased the probability of mounting
taking place after the initiations of a sexual
interaction, from 0.582 to 0.07; (d) caused a
premature termination of mounting and thus
probably prevented ejaculation; and (e) redirected
mounting from the harassed to the harasser.
Harassment and Synchrony in Sexual
Swelling: The frequency of harassment varied
with the number of females with swelling. At
the pre-mounting stage, 1.3% of the sexual
interactions were harassed with two females with
swelling and 13.7% with four such females
(X2=14.5, df=3, /?<0.001, Table 2). Harassment
at the mounting stage also increased with the
number of females with swelling in the group,
although the difference was not significant
(X2=5.09, df=3, /?>0.10). Harassment at the
mounting stage was significantly more frequent
when there were three females with swelling
(33.3%) compared to when there was only one
(7.3%, Fisher exact test, p=0.04).
Table 2
PERCENTAGE OF SEXUAL INTERACTIONS,
HARASSED AT THE PREMOUNTING AND
MOUNTING STAGES BY ADULT FEMALES, AND
ESTIMATED PERCENTAGE OF MATING CURTAILED
Number of
females with
swelling
Sexual
interactions
seen
% harassed
premount
mount stage
% harassed
mounting
stage
0
69
0
0
1
108
1.9
7.3
2
75
1.3
14.3
3
14
7.1
33.3
4
73
13.7
1 1.6
The frequency of mounting by the male
showed significant differences between days,
depending on the number of females with
swelling. (Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of
variance (K-W test), x2=13.4,p<0.005. Table 3).
However, it did not increase in proportion to the
46
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
SEXUAL HARASSMENT AMONG FEMALE LION-TAILED MACAQUES
Table 3
MOUNTING FREQUENCY (PER HOUR) BY THE
ADULT MALE AND SUBADULT MALE WHEN THERE
WERE 0 TO 4 FEMALES WITHSEXUAL SWELLING IN
THE GROUP
Number of females with swelling
0
1
2
3
4
Adult male
Mean
0.09
0.42
1.66
1.37
1.53
Min.
0.00
0.00
1.14
0.27
1.24
Max.
2.50
1.24
2.53
2.45
1.90
Subadult
Mean
0.04
0.04
0.23
0.30
0.22
Male
Min.
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Max.
1.50
0.10
0.38
0.82
0.36
number of females with swelling, but appeared
to reach a plateau when there were two females
with swelling. The single subadult male in the
group in 1982-84 had a mating frequency that
was considerably lower than that of the adult
male, but seemed to increase as the number of
females with swelling increased (Table 3).
However, the duration of mounting was
considerably shorter for the subadult male (often
less than 5 secs), and also did not show the
characteristic multiple mount pattern of the adult
male.
Consequences of Harassment: If harass-
ment significantly reduces the frequency of
ejaculatory mating, this could result in a
reduction in the chances of conception by female.
This is particularly so if harassment is
asymmetrically distributed among the females,
for example due to social dominance. Dominance
interactions were relatively few and occurred
mainly on major feeding trees when visibility was
poor. As a result, the dominance hierarchy of
females in the main study group was not precisely
known. Moreover, it was often impossible to
identify the females because of the speed with
which harassments occurred and poor visibility.
Therefore, the reproductive consequences of
harassment was examined indirectly. The
distribution of conceptions and births in the study
group was used to test whether females were less
likely conceive when there were more than one
female with swelling. If this is so, then
conceptions and births would not show a
synchrony similar to that shown by sexual
swelling, but would be more evenly spread out
across the months.
The date of births in the group during the
study period were known. For these, the months
of conception were estimated using a gestation
period of 172 days (Lindburg and Lasley. 1985).
Conceptions did not have a peak corresponding
to that of sexual swelling at the beginning of the
season (Fig. 1). Of the five females which had
swellings in June 1979, only one conceived
during that month. There were no data on sexual
cycles in July and August, but only one each of
four remaining females conceived in July and
August. The cycles of the remaining two females
continued in synchrony until one conceived in
December. Since the second study ended before
the births from the 1983-84 mating season
(September 1983 to February 1984), stoppage of
cycling by females was taken as indicating
conception. Two females which showed swelling
in September 1 983 did so again in October, when
the four females which showed sexual swelling
during that mating season, did so in synchrony.
The cycle of only one stopped after that month.
The remaining three females showed swelling
in November (along with a subadult female), but
only two conceptions occurred. The cycle of the
remaining adult female continued until
December 1983. The subadult female’s cycle
continued until the end of the field study in
February 1984.
Population regulation: Sexual harassment
could potentially play a population regulatory
role since the number of females that postpone
conception, especially to the next reproductive
year, could increase with group size. If this is
the case, then the births in the larger groups
should be more dispersed among the months.
This was tested with data on births from the mam
study group and six other groups that were
periodically monitored. The seven groups were
divided into two group size classes (12-18 and
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
47
SEXUAL HARASSMENT AMONG FEMALE LION - TAILED MA CA QUES
Months
Months
Fig. 3: The distribution of births in two group-size classes, 12-18 (above) and 19-28 (below).
Each square represents one birth.
19-28) based on the mean group size during the
study period (Fig. 3). Both the classes had the
same mean birth date (Caughley 1977), June 15,
but the coefficient of variation for the smaller
class (205.0%) was nearly twice that of the larger
class (112.2%). Thus, contrary to what was
expected, births in the smaller groups were more
dispersed through the year than the larger groups.
It is also noteworthy that the main study group
had a shorter mating season in 1983-84 when
the group size was 17, compared to that in 1979-
80 when the group size was 12 (Fig. 2).
Discussion
Sexual harassment by adult females
probably occurs as a consequence of the high
synchrony of sexual swelling among the females
of a group, a high female/male ratio (5:1), and
the tendency for the groups to be one-male units.
These could lead to considerable sexual
competition among the females. The multiple-
mounting pattern of the male (Fooden, 1975;
Kumar and Kurup, 1985) might also impose
constraints on the mating potential of the male.
48
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1). APR. 2000
SEXUAL HARASSMENT AMONG FEMALE LION-TAILED MACAQUES
This competition could increase with the number
of females in sexual synchrony. The extent to
which harassment could affect the probability of
conception would depend on the stage of the
sexual cycle in relation to ovulation and the
degree of asymmetry in the direction of
harassment. Even though the frequency of
mounting in the first week of swelling was highly
variable even when there was only one sexually
active female (Kumar, 1987), the peak between
2-5 days prior to deflation indicates that
mountings at this stage of the cycle might be
critical to conception. Thus, harassment in the
last week of swelling could severely affect the
probability of conception. At extreme asymmetry,
in the direction of harassment, all the curtailed
mountings could be of the low-ranking females.
In addition, if harassments between females of
different ranks differed in aggressiveness (for
example, those by dominant females being more
aggressive) mounting by the low-ranking females
could be curtailed more than those of dominant
females since aggressive harassments were more
effective in curtailing mounting.
Birth rate in the lion-tailed macaques is a
decreasing function of group size and the number
of adult females in the group (Kumar, 1995b).
Sexual harassment could lead to such an effect
and thus serve as a population regulatory factor,
if two conditions are met: i) the proportion of
females coming into sexual synchrony during the
mating season should be constant with group
size, so that their absolute number would increase
with group size; and ii) groups should be either
one male units irrespective of group size, or when
there is more than one male, only one of them is
reproductively active during all the phases of the
sexual cycle of the females. If these conditions
are met, then the mating season should be more
prolonged with increasing group size, as more
females postpone conception. Therefore, births
should be more dispersed in the larger groups
and have a higher coefficient of variation. The
limited data on the main study group shows that
the mating season gets shorter, and not longer
as predicted, as the group becomes larger. Also,
contrary to the second prediction, births were
relatively less dispersed in the larger groups than
in the smaller groups. This was probably because
of the violation of the above two conditions.
It is known that females do not ovulate
until they reach a particular nutritional level
(Frisch and McArthur 1974). Since resource
competition increases with group size, it could
be expected that the number of females able to
build up sufficient nutritional reserves, so as to
start ovulation, would decrease with increasing
group size. There is no systematic data on the
number of females coming into sexual cycle as a
function of group size. In one large group with
more than 25 members, which was regularly
censused, not more than 4 of the 1 2 females were
ever seen with sexual swelling on the same day.
Since births in the larger groups were few, it was
unlikely that other females were in post-paitum
amenorrhea. Moreover, although the group was
seen almost every month in 1979, swellings were
seen only in June and November-December (with
2 and 3-4 females respectively).
In addition, the number of adult and
subadult males increase with group size (Kumar,
1987). No data was collected on the sexual
behaviour of males in multi-male groups. The
limited data on sexual behaviour of the subadult
male of the study group indicate that mounting
frequency of subadult males increased with the
number of sexually active females in the group
(Table 3). Even if mountings by the subadult male
(and probably low ranking adult males of multi-
male groups) are confined to the early follicular
and luteal phases of the cycle, such mountings
could significantly reduce the sexual competition
between the females with overlapping sexual
cycles. As a result, mountings by the adult male
(or dominant male in multi-male groups), even
if only confined to the late follicular phase, could
be less harassed by other females which are in
other phases of the cycle.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1), APR. 2000
49
SEXUAL HARASSMENT AMONG FEMALE LION-TAILED MACAQUES
The short birth season in the larger groups
might be, therefore, a cumulative function of (a)
fewer females coming into sexual cycles in each
season which in itself would significantly reduce
female sexual competition and (b) more adult
males in the larger groups which would further
reduce female sexual competition. Thus, it
appears unlikely that sexual harassment could
be a population regulatory factor, in the small
and large groups. In the former, in spite of female
sexual competition (resulting from one male and
several sexually active females), postponement
of conception is expected to be only within the
mating season. In the larger groups, on the other
hand, fewer females ovulate in the mating season.
It is possible that ovulating females are still
sufficiently numerous in the medium sized one
male groups, so that sexual competition could
be high. A few females would be forced to
postpone conception to the next mating season
thus leading to/reproductive suppression.
Postponement of conception within the
season could serve indirectly as a population
R E FE
Abbott, D.H. (1988): Social suppression of reproduction in
primates. In: Comparative Socioecology: The
Behavioural Ecology and Humans and Other Animals
(Eds. V. Standen and R.A. Foely), pp. 285-304.
Abbot. D.H., E.B. Keverne, G.F. Moore & U.
YoDYiNGYARd (1986): Social suppression of
reproduction in subordinate talapoin monkeys,
Miopithecus talapoin. In: Primate Ontogeny,
Cognition and Reproductive Behaviour (Eds. J.G.
Else and P.C. Lee), Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge. Pp 329-34 1 .
Caughley, G. ( 1 975): Analysis of Vertebrate Populations.
Wiley, Chichester.
Drickamer. L.C. (1974): A ten-year summary of
reproductive data for free-ranging Macaca mulatto.
Folia Primatologica 21: 61-80.
Dunbar, R.I.M. (1980): Determinants and evolutionary
consequences of dominance among female gelada
baboons. Behavioural Ecology and Sociobiology 7:
253-265.
Fooden, .1. (1975): Taxonomy and Evolution of Liontai 1
and Pigtail Macaques (Primates : Cercopithecidae).
regulatory factor. Increased mortality of infants
born in late season has been reported; for example
in M. mulatto (Drickammer, 1974) and in
A. palliatta (Froelich et al., 1981). Since
postponement of conception is expected to
increase with group size within the small to
medium-size range, late season births and infant
mortality could be expected to increase with
group size within that range.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Tamil Nadu Forest
Department for facilities provided in the field; to
Zoological Survey of India for funding in 1 977-
80, to Wenner-Gren Foundation, L.S.B. Leaky
Foundations, WWF-US, WWF-India, and
Cambridge Commonwealth Trust for grants in
1981-87; and to Wildlife Conservation Society,
New York, for grants in 1987-89. Earlier drafts of
this paper greatly benefited from comments by Drs.
D.J. Olivers, E.L. Bennet, J.M.Y. Robertson, E.
Barret, L. Fuller, E.B. Keverne, and G.W. Norton.
e n c e s
Bibliotheca Primatologica 10. Basel, Karger.
Frisch, R.E. & E. McArthur (1974): Menstrual cycles:
fatness as a determinant of minimum weight for the
maintenance or onset. Science 185: 949-95 1
Froelich, J.W., Thorington, Jr., & J.S. Otis ( 1 98 1 ): The
demography of howler monkeys ( Alouatta palliata)
on Barro Colorado Island, Panama. International
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Keverne. E.B. (1983): Endocrine determinants and
constraints on sexual behaviour in monkeys. In: Mate
Choice, (Ed. P. Bateson). Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, pp. 407-420.
Kumar, A. (1987): The Ecology and Population Dynamics
of the Lion-tailed macaque (Macaca silenus) in South
India. Ph.D. Dissertation submitted to the University
of Cambridge, U.K.
Kumar, A. (1995a): The life history, ecology, distribution
and conservation problems in the wild. In: The Lion-
taled Macaque: Population and Habitat Viability
Assessment Workshop. Zoo Outreach. Coimbatore,
India. Kumar, A., S. Molurand S. Walker (Eds.).
Kumar. A. ( 1995b): Birth rate and sun ival in relation to
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group size in the lion-tailed macaque, Macaco silenus.
Primates. 36: 1-9.
Kumar, A. & G.U. Kurup (1 985): Sexual behaviour of the
Lion-tailed macaque, Macaca silenus. In: The Lion-
tailed Macaque: Status and Conservation (Ed. P.G.
Heltne), pp, 1 09- 1 30, Alan R. Liss, New York.
Lindburg, D.G. & B.L. Lasely (1985): Strategies of
optimising the reproductive potential of lion-tailed
macaque colonies in captivity, lit: The Lion-tailed
Macaque: Status and Conservation (Ed. P.G. Heltne).
pp. 34-56. Alan R. Liss. New York.
Mori. A. (1979): Analysis of population changes by body
weight in the Koshima troop of Japanese monkeys.
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cooperation among female yellow baboons. In: Social
Behaviour of Female Vertebrates. (Ed. S.K. Wasser),
Academic Press, New York. pp. 349-390.
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000
51
SEASONAL CHANGES OF TROPICAL FOREST BIRDS
IN THE SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS1
E.A. Jayson2 and D.N. Mathew3
( With seven text-figures)
Key words: Seasonal changes, forest birds, Western Ghats, Kerala, India
A study was carried out in the tropical forests of Silent Valley and Mukkali in the Western Ghats,
Kerala from May 1988 to April 1993, to elucidate the seasonal changes of bird communities in
the two vegetation types. Abundance and density of birds were assessed, using variable width
line transects each month. The highest populations, 609-1 ,892 /km2 were found from December-
April. Total number, monthly density and species richness of birds declined during monsoon.
When compared, abundance and density of birds, observed in the evergreen forests was more
(929 /km2) than in moist deciduous forests (747 /km2). However, bird population showed more
stability in the moist deciduous forests. Except for two summers, significantly higher bird density
was obtained in the evergreen forests during summer (1,074 /km2). Bird species diversity was
high during summer and low in monsoon in both the vegetation types. A direct negative relationship
was also obtained between the rainfall, total number of birds, bird density and total number of
bird species in the evergreen forests. Significant positive correlation was obtained between the
temperature and bird community parameters in the evergreen forests, whereas rainfall and
temperature showed no significant effect on the bird community in the tropical moist deciduous
forests.
Introduction
Tropical forests support a stable population
of birds m all seasons, whereas marked variations
have been noted in temperate forests (Wright,
1970; Kricher, 1975). Seasonal variation of forest
birds has been reported from several other
countries (Anderson, 1972, Morrison etal. 1980,
Pyke, 1984). No information, however, is
available on the seasonal trends of tropical forest
birds of the Western Ghats of South India. An
attempt has been made to monitor the seasonal
changes of bird communities in the tropical
evergreen forests and the southern secondary
moist mixed deciduous forest of Kerala. Birds of
Kerala have been studied by Ali (1969), Ali and
'Accepted April, 1999
;Division of Wildlife Biology
Kerala Forest Research Institute
Peechi 680 653, Kerala, India.
■ Department of Zoology
University of Calicut, Calicut University P.O,
Kerala, India.
Ripley (1983a) and All and Ripley (1983b)
earlier. Ecological studies were carried out at
Silent Valley by Balagopalan (1990) and
Balasubramanian (1990). Ramakrishnan (1983)
studied the ecology of birds in the Malabar
forests. Daniels (1989) and Daniels et al. (1990)
reported many aspects of birds of the northern
Western Ghats.
StudyArea
Location and topography: The study
areas, Silent Valley and Mukkali are located in
Palakkad dist., Kerala State, between 1 1° 3' and
11° 13' N lat., and between 76° 25' and 76° 35' E
long. They lie in the Western Ghats of south India
and form part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve
(Fig. 1). After evaluating the entire area, two
intensive study sites were selected: a tropical
evergreen forest, Silent Valley, and a moist
deciduous forest at Mukkali. The elevation of the
study sites varied from 500 m to 1500 m above
msl. The topography is undulating. According
52
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
SEASONAL CHANGES OF TROPICAL FOREST BIRDS
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
53
Fig. 1 : Location of the study area
SEASONAL CHANGES OF TROPICAL FOREST BIRDS
to Udvardy (1975), Silent Valley and Mukkali
fall under the Malabar Rain Forest Realm. These
two study sites are at a distance of about 20 km
with a difference in elevation of 400 m between
them.
Climate: There are two distinct seasons
in the study area, monsoon starting from the end
of May, up to mid-November, and the dry
summer from December to April. Mukkali
(4,227 mm/year) receives less rainfall compared
to Silent Valley (5,096 mm/year). Heavy rainfall,
803 mm to 2,043 mm/month, was recorded at
Silent Valley. From December to March, there
is practically no rain. Temperature ranged
froml9°C to 22°C at Silent Valley and 21°C to
27°C at Mukkali.
Vegetation: A total of 966 species of
angiosperms belonging to 559 genera and 134
families were recorded from Silent Valley and
adjacent areas (Manilal, 1988). Pascal (1988)
described the vegetation of the area as Cullenia
exarillata-Mesua ferrea-Palaquium ellipticum
type. It is characterised by the abundance of these
three species, which may constitute about 80%
of the large trees. Degraded areas and other
vegetation types like grasslands are also common
here. Vegetation of Mukkali is southern
secondary moist mixed deciduous forest
(Champion and Seth, 1968), degraded to some
extent.
Methods
After considering all the available
techniques, variable width line transect method
described by Burnham et al. (1981) was adopted.
Whenever a bird was spotted, it was identified
up to the species level and details like the number
of birds, perpendicular distance from the transect,
height at which it is located in the canopy and
habitat features were noted. Two line transects
were selected, one at Silent Valley and the other
at Mukkali; each transect was 4 km in length.
The first transect covered evergreen forests and
the second habitats like moist deciduous forests,
rocky patches and fire burned moist deciduous
forests. Census was started 30 minutes after
sunrise in all the months. Transects were covered
at a uniform speed. No census was done on days
with very heavy rain and fog.
Two samples were collected from each area
in a month. The second sample was started from
the end of the first sample. A total of 1 50 samples
were collected between May 1988 and 1993. No
systematic data was collected on nocturnal birds.
All calls were considered as single individuals.
Perpendicular distances were measured
approximately up to metres. To help distance
assessment, known distances were measured and
marked on trees using a Range Finder before the
census. Abundance of birds in each month
obtained from the census was used for analysis.
Seasonal index of birds for each month was
calculated using Time Series Analysis by the
method of Simple Averages (Rao, 1983). The
formula used is given below:
Monthly average
Seasonal Index = x 100
Sum of monthly averages
Analysis of variance was employed to find
any significant difference existing in the total
number of birds among the months. The Fourier
Series Method was employed for calculating
density from the ungrouped perpendicular
distances from the transect. All the assumptions
described by Burnham et al. ( 1 98 1 ) were followed
during the census. Students ‘t’ test was applied
to find out the significant difference in the
number of birds between summer and monsoon.
Diversity was calculated using Shannon- Wener
Index (H - -X (pi In pi) with the program
specdivers.bas developed by Ludwig and
Reynolds (1988). Spearman Rank Correlation
was used to find out the correlation between
climatic parameters and bird community
parameters.
54
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1), APR. 2000
SEASONAL CHANGES OF TROPICAL FOREST BIRDS
Table 1
SEASONAL INDEX OF BIRDS PRESENT IN EACH MONTH AT SILENT VALLEY AND MUKKALI
Area
Months
.1
F
M
A
M
J
.1
A
S
O
N
D
Silent
114
109
88
81
95
54
58
59
119
101
136
153
Valley
Mukkali
113
92
131
89
84
113
73
87
116
99
133
70
Results
Patterns of change
Monthly variation: During September to
February, more birds were present at the Silent
Valley compared to the annual average of 100
(Table 1). In Mukkali, higher number than the
annual average were observed during the months
of January, March, September and November.
Highest Seasonal Index (133) was obtained in
November. Analysis of variance showed a
significant difference in the total number of
birds among the months at Silent Valley (F=
6.18; P= 0.01), whereas no significant difference
was obtained at Mukkali (F= 1.95; P= 0.08).
Seasonal variation in a year: The total
number, monthly density and species richness of
birds at Silent Valley and Mukkali declined during
monsoon and increased in the dry months (Table
2). No significant difference in total number was
obtained between monsoon and summer at Silent
Valley and Mukkali (Silent Valley ‘t’=1.63,
P=0.14; Mukkali ‘f=0.28, P=0.79). Species like
the black bulbul ( Hypsipetes madagciscariensis ),
emerald dove(Chalcophaps indica) and the
imperial pigeon ( Ducula badia) were practically
absent during monsoon at Silent Valley.
Seasonal change over the years: Total
number of birds: Data were pooled into two
seasons, monsoon and summer, to find out the
seasonal differences in the total number of birds
over the years. Chi-square test revealed a
significant difference in the number of birds
between the seasons at Silent Valley (Table 3). The
highest number of birds per month (91) was
observed in the 1991 summer and the lowest (53)
in the monsoon of 1992. At Mukkali, there was
no significant difference among seasons in the total
number of birds. Significant difference in the
number of birds per month between Silent Valley
and Mukkali was observed during three summers.
During these seasons, there were more birds at
Silent Valley. But during the 1992 summer and
monsoon, no significant difference in the number
of birds was observed, both at Silent Valley and
Mukkali.
Table 2
COMM UNITY PARAMETERS OF BIRDS RECORDED DURING TWO SEASONS (1 988-1993)
Area
Monsoon season
Summer season
No. of birds (mean)
70.00 (±28.63)
90.33 (±32.25)
Silent Valley
Density (birds/knr )
958. 16 (±478.58)
1286.17 (±781 .1 8)
Species richness
28.33 (±6.87)
43. 16 (±7.00)
No. of birds (mean)
60.67 (±12.61)
56.5 (±12.91)
Mukkali
Density (birds/knr)
854.33 (±400.43)
707.00 (±285.36)
Species richness
30.67 (±9.35)
39.17 (±10.23)
Standard Deviation is in parenthesis
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
55
SEASONAL CHANGES OF TROPICAL FOREST BIRDS
Table 3
MEAN NUMBER OF BIRDS RECORDED PER MONTH
IN DIFFERENT SEASONS AT SILENT VALLEY AND
MUKKALI
Seasons
Silent
Valley
Mukkali
Total
X2
P=
Monsoon
1988
70
76
146
0.25
NS
Summer
1989
95
52
147
12.58
0.02
Monsoon
1990
74
48
122
5.50
0.02
Summer
1991
91
50
141
11.92
0.001
Monsoon
1992
53
67
120
1.63
NS
Summer
1992
83
70
153
1.10
NS
Summer
1993
Total
X2
P =
89
555
16.36
0.02
59
422
1 1.83
NS
148
6.08
0.02
NS= Not Significant
Species Richness: There is no significant
difference in bird species richness between years
in monsoon (x2=4.26; P=0.05) and summer
(X2=8.92; P=0.05) at Silent Valley. But a
significant difference was obtained between years
in both seasons at Mukkali (Monsoon x 2 =38.97;
P=0.001, Summer %2= 14.64; P=0.001).
Density: Significant difference in density
was obtained between seasons in different years
at Silent Valley and Mukkali. The values for
summer and monsoon showed a significant
difference (Silent Valley: %2=62.25, P=0.05,
df=l; Mukkali: %2=39.33, P=0.05, df=l). Bird
density was high during summer, both at Silent
Valley and Mukkali. Except for two summers,
significantly higher bird density was observed
at Silent Valley in summer (Table 4).
Diversity: Variations in the diversity of
birds, based on Shannon- Wener diversity index,
in different seasons at Silent Valley and Mukkali
are given in Table 5. Diversity index showed high
values in summer (X=3.12, 11=5) and lower
during monsoon (X=2.65, n=4), at Silent Valley
and Mukkali (monsoon: X=2.78. n=4 and
summer: X=3.14, n=5).
Table 4
SEASONAL VARIATION IN BIRD DENSITY AT SILENT VALLEY AND MUKKALI
Seasons
Density/sq. km
Mean density
Silent Valley
Mukkali
Total
Mean
X2
P =
Monsoon
1036
638
1674
837
94.63
0.00 1
1988
(3.23)
(5.01)
Summer
2123
1662
3785
1892.5
56.15
0.001
1989
(2.21)
(7.72)
Monsoon
685
401
1086
543
74.27
0.001
1990
(3.03)
(7.86)
Summer
741.4
370
1 1 1 1 .4
555.7
124.11
0.001
1991
(3.93)
(14.99)
Monsoon
493
792
1285
642.5
69.57
0.001
1992
(9.11)
(3.06)
Summer
823
757
1580
790
2.76
NS
1992
(6.03)
(4.34)
Summer
608
688
1296
648.0
4.94
NS
1993
(10.91)
(5.61)
Total
6509.40
5308
X2
1976.52
1471.29
P =
0.001
0.001
NS= Not Significant; The values in the brackets denote coefficient of variation of the estimates.
56
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
SEASONAL CHANGES OF TROPICAL FOREST BIRDS
Factors affecting the seasonal variation
Rainfall: A direct relationship was
obtained between rainfall and number of birds,
density and total number of bird species at Silent
Valley. When rainfall increased, all of these three
community parameters decreased, and vice versa
(Figs. 2, 3 & 4). At Mukkali also, rainfall had its
influence on bird community, but not in the same
magnitude as that of Silent Valley (Figs. 5, 6 & 7).
At Silent Valley, significant negative
correlation was obtained between the mean of
monthly total rainfall (1988-1993) and number
Fig
J FMAMJ JASOND
Months
2: Relation between rainfall and number of species at Silent Valley
1400
J FMAMJ JASOND
Months
Fig. 3: Relation between rainfall and number of species at Mukkali
Species
19 Rainfall
Species
Rainfall
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
57
SEASONAL CHANGES OF TROPICAL FOREST BIRDS
1600
1400
1200
1000 |
800 75
c
600 c
400
200
0
J FMAMJ JASOND
Months
Fig. 4: Relation between rainfall and abundance of birds at Silent Valley
i ou
1400
-1200
-1000
E
800 £
75
600 1
DC
400
200
0
J FMAMJ JASOND
Months
Fig. 5: Relation between rainfall and number of birds at Mukkali
Birds
91 Rainfall
Birds
Rainfall
of species in each month (r= -0.731, P= 0.01,
n= 12). Significant correlation was also obtained
between mean monthly rainfall and total number
of birds in each month (r= -0.66, P= 0.05,
n= 12). But there was no significant correlation
between the density of birds in each month and
rainfall (r= -0.45, P= 0.05, n= 12).
At Mukkali, no significant correlation was
obtained between monthly rainfall and bird
community parameters. Here, monthly rainfall
showed negative correlation with the number of
bird species (r= -0.41, P= 0.05, n= 12) and there
was no significant correlation between monthly
rainfall and the total number of birds (r= -0.21,
58
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1), APR. 2000
SEASONAL CHANGES OF TROPICAL FOREST BIRDS
3000
1600
J FMAMJ JASOND
Months
Fig. 6: Relation between rainfall and density of birds at Silent Valley
1400
1200
1000
£ 800
»
& 600
J FMAMJ JASOND
Months
Fig. 7: Relation between rainfall and density of birds at Mukkali
Density
Rainfall
Density
Rainfall
P= 0.05, n=12) and their density (r= -0.06,
P= 0.05, n= 12). This suggests that rainfall does
not have any significant effect on the bird
community at Mukkali.
Temperature: There was significant
positive correlation between temperature and bird
community parameters at Silent Valley. Number
of species increased with increase in temperature
(Coefficient of correlation r= 0.57, P= 0.05,
n= 12). Similarly, total number of birds (r= 0.83,
P= 0.001, n= 12) and their density (r= 0.62.
P= 0.05, n= 12) showed an upward trend as the
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
59
SEASONAL CHANGES OF TROPICAL FOREST BIRDS
Table 5
SEASONAL VARIATION IN DIVERSITY (H’) AT
SILENT VALLEY AND MUKKALI
Seasons
Silent Valley
Mukkali
Monsoon 1988
2.77
2.50
Monsoon 1989
2.38
2.63
Monsoon 1990
2.70
2.85
Monsoon 1992
2.74
3.13
Mean
2.65
2.78
Summer 1 989
3.20
2.96
Summer 1 990
3.01
2.95
Summer 1991
3.23
3.08
Summer 1 992
3.29
3.46
Summer 1993
2.88
3.25
Mean
3.12
3.14
temperature increased during summer. At
Mukkali, no such significant correlation was
found (temperature and number of species
r= 0.21, P= 0.05, n= 12; temperature and total
number of birds r= -0.08, P= 0.05, n= 12).
Discussion
Patterns of change: During monsoon,
there was reduction in the number of birds both
at Silent Valley and Mukkali. Birds appeared to
move locally to avoid the unfavourable climate.
Local movements in search of optimum habitats
are possible because of the availability of other
habitats in the vicinity as the tracts where the
study was conducted were fragmented forest
patches. Similar trends were reported from the
tropical forests of other countries also. Variation
in rainfall and soil moisture makes tropical bird
fauna seasonal (Greenberg and Gradwohl, 1986).
According to them, this is due to the influence
of rainfall on phenological patterns of trees,
which in turn affect the population trends of
arthropods. Karr (1976) also showed the effect
of high rainfall on the seasonal patterns of birds.
Higher numbers of birds were recorded
during summer in two vegetation types. A greater
abundance of birds was found at Silent Valley
during summer than at Mukkali. Density of birds
and their diversity indices were also higher for
Silent Valley during summer, which can be
attributed to the availability of more fruits at
Silent Valley during summer. However, at
Mukkali, the bird population showed much more
stability.
Factors influencing the seasonal
variations: Rainfall and temperature were the
major factors influencing the abundance of birds
at Silent Valley and Mukkali. Price (1979) who
worked on the birds of Eastern Ghats also found
a similar trend in annual cycles of bird fauna
due to changes in rainfall. As mentioned earlier,
a few species of birds like the yellowbrowed
bulbul ( Hypsipetes indicus ) showed stability in
population even in the fluctuating environment.
This can be attributed to the resident nature of
the species, coupled with its ability to feed on
various food types like berries, drupes, nectar,
spiders and insects.
Stiles (1978) had also shown that in
tropical forests bird communities fluctuated in
number as a response to the availability of food
and climate changes. The relationship between
food resources and bird diversity was also
reported by Terborgh (1985). Even though
tropical forest birds are considered sedentary,
MacArthur (1972) has shown that seasonal
movements are fundamental in many species as
an adaptive strategy in varied forest habitats. This
study also showed that rainfall and temperature
influence the tropical evergreen forest bird
community, whereas such climatic factors have
little effect on birds of moist deciduous forests.
Acknowledgements
Statistical analyses were done with the help
of Ms. K.A. Mercey, Asst. Prof., College of
Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy,
Trichur. We thank the field staff of Silent Valley
National Park for their help and the Dept, of
Environment, Govt, of India for support.
60
JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
SEASONAL CHANGES OF TROPICAL FOREST BIRDS
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Manilal, K.S. (1988): Flora of Silent Valley Tropical
Rainforests of India. The Mathrubhmni (MM)
Press, Calicut, pp. 398.
Morrison, M. L.. A. Kimberly & 1. C. Timossi (1980):
The structure of a forest bird community during
winter and summer Wilson Bull., 98(2): 214-230.
Pascal, J.P. (1 988): Wet Evergreen Forests ofthe Western
Ghats of India, Ecology, Structure, Floristic
Composition and Succession. Institute Francais de
Pondicherry. Pondicherry. 239 p.
Price, T.D. ( 1 979): The seasonality and occurrence of birds
in the Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 76(3):319-422.
Pyke, G.H. (1984): Seasonal patterns of abundance of
insectivorous birds and flying insects. Emu
85(1): 34-39.
Ramakrishnan, P. (1983): Environmental Studies on the
Birds of Malabar Forest. Ph. D. Dissertation.
University of Calicut.
Rao, G.N. (1983): Statistics for Agricultural Sciences.
Oxford and IBH Publ. Co. pp 280.
Stiles, F.G. (1978): Temporal organization of flowering
among the Humming bird, food plants of a tropical
forest. Biotropica 10: 1 94-2 10.
Terborgh, J. (1985): Habitat selection in Amazonian birds
In: Habitat selection in birds. Ed. M.L. Cody,
Academic Press, New York. 3 1 1 -338.
Udvardy, M.D.R. (1975): A classification of the
biogeographical provinces of the world. IUCN
Occasional Paper. 18 IUCN. Gland, Morges.
Wright, J.S. (1970): Competition between insectivorous
lizards and birds in Central Panama. Amer. ZooL,
19:1 145-1156.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
61
PLODIA INTERPUNCTELLA (HUBNER) (PHYCITIDAE : LEPIDOPTERA)
AS A POTENTIAL PEST OF DRY FRUITS1
S.P. Rad3, H.R. Pajni andNeelima Talwar2
Key words: Plodia interpunctella , dry fruits, susceptibility, weight loss, development
period, moisture content
Relative susceptibility of 1 2 types of dry fruits viz., almond, apricot, cashewnut, chilgoza, coconut,
date, fig, hazelnut, mulberry, pista, raisin and walnut and 1 0 varieties of pista procured from Iran
i.e. Ebrahimi, Fandoghi, Gholam Rezaia, Jabbary, Kallenghoochi, Momtaz, O’hadi, Rezaia, Shasti
and Wahedi to the attack of Plodia interpunctella (H.) has been studied for the first time. The
results showed that cashewnut and pista were the most susceptible and date the least. Out of 10
pista varieties, the varieties Rezaia and Wahedi were the most resistant while the cultivars Fandoghi
and Momtaz were the most susceptible. The index of susceptibility has been calculated on the
basis of weight loss of fruits and development period and progeny of the pest.
Introduction
The Indian meal moth Plodia inteipunctella
(Hubner) (Phycitidae : Lepidoptera) is an important
pest of stored cereals, legumes and dry fruits. The
damage is caused by the larvae: besides consuming
the product they also spoil it with their webbings
and faecal matter, making it unfit for human
consumption. A large number of studies have been
made on its general biology. Hoppe (1981), Mbata
(1987, 1990) and Stein (1990) studied the
development pattern while food preference was
studied by Lecato (1976). Observations on
oviposition behaviour have been made by Mullen
and Arbogast (1977), Mbata (1985, 1990) and
Almasi et ah, (1987). Grant (1974), Grant and
Brady (1975) and Grant (1976) studied the
copulation while Grant (1974), Grant and Brady
(1975), Ono (1981) and Rangaswamy ( 1 985) made
observations on the role of pheromones. The
diapause behaviour has been studied by Bell and
Walker (1973) and Bell ( 1 976a, 1 976b). However,
only a few dry fruits have been tested as hosts of
this pest. Myers (1928) studied the relative
preference of the pest for a few dry fruits. Hamlin
et al.,{ 1931 ), Simmons ( 1 93 1 ) and William ( 1 964)
observed development in some dry fruits and
'Accepted February, 1998
: Department of Zoology, Panjab University,
Chandigarh 160014, India.
'Present Address: 28, Matyer Feeroze Lane,
Caroon Street, Azarbyjan Street, Tehran - Iran 1 3448.
cereals. Mullen and Arbogast (1977) studied
oviposition on peanuts and dates while Mbata and
Osuji ( 1 983) studied the development in whole and
cracked groundnuts.
The present communication deals with the
relative susceptibility and extent of damage to
12 dry fruits and 10 varieties of pista, to assess
the potential of P. interpunctella (Hubner) as a
pest of stored dry fruit.
Material and Methods
Adults of Plodia interpunctella (H.) used
in the present study were taken from stock
cultures raised in the laboratory from small
samples collected from Delhi and Chandigarh.
The cultures were maintained on different foods
stored in an electric incubator fixed at 30 ± 1° C
and 75-85% R.H. The foods used for stock
cultures as well as those selected for different
experiments were sterilized at 50° C for two
hours in order to eliminate any parasites or other
microorganisms. The twelve selected dry fruits
were Prunus amygdalus Batsch almond, Primus
armeniaca L. apricot, Anacardium occidental
L. cashewnut, Pinus gerarcliana chilgoza, Cocos
nucifera L. coconut, Phoenix dactylifera L. date,
Ficus glomerata fig, Corylus spp. hazelnut,
Morus nigra L. mulberry, Pistacia vera L. pista,
Vitis vinifera L. raisin and Juglans regia L.
walnut. The susceptibility index of different dry
62
JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1) APR. 2000
PLODIA INTERPUNCTELLA ASA POTENTIAL PEST OF DRY FRUITS
fruits was studied out by keeping ten three-day
old eggs mixed with 2 gm of nuts. Three
replications were kept in each case.
The samples were reweighed after
emergence to determine the loss of weight due
to consumption by the larvae. The moisture
content of the samples was also calculated at the
beginning and the end of the experiment and loss/
increase in weight due to moisture variation was
considered while calculating actual weight loss.
The percentage weight loss due to moisture
content variations has been calculated by using the
following relationship given by Jamieson (1970).
100 (M,-M.)
G = — -
100 -M,
Where M, = Initial moisture content
percentage wet basis.
M, = Final moisture content
percentage wet basis.
Knowing the value of G, the loss Or gain
in weight due to variation in moisture content
(d) can be calculated as under, and necessary
correction in weight loss of the food made.
GxW,
d - —
100
Where W = Observed weight loss of the
food.
G =* Loss or gain percentage in
weight due to moisture content
variation.
The data obtained were subjected to
statistical analysis.
Results and Discussion
The relative susceptibility of twelve types
of dry fruits was calculated on the basis of food
consumed, the number of adults emerged,
duration of developmental period and weight loss
of the fruits.
The results given in Table 1 showed that
amount of different foods consumed by the larvae
varied greatly, the largest amount being
consumed in mulberry (1.816 gm) and the least
in the case of coconut (0.004 gm).
Appreciable differences have also been
noted in the average development period. Pista
registered the shortest development period of
31.71 days, whereas, date showed the longest
development period of 104.25 days. However,
Hamlin et al. (1931) observed more rapid
development of larvae on figs among three fruits
namely raisins, prunes and figs tested by them.
The progeny produced was maximum in pista,
walnut, cashewnut and almond, while other fruits
produced comparatively much less progeny. The
Table 1
WEIGHT LOSS OF 1 2 DRY FRUITS DUE TO THE ATTACK OF PLODIA INTERPUNCTELLA (H.)
(based on three observations)
Food
Initial Weight
of food
mean (gm)
Final Weight
of food
mean (gm)
Moisture Content
M, M,
Weight
loss
Mean
% age
weight loss
Corrected
mean % age
weight loss
Mulberry
2
0.184
8.96
7.326
1.816
90.80
90.768
Fig
2
0.593
10.32
9.949
1.407
70.35
70.345
Cashewnut
2
1.149
4.38
3.307
0.851
42.55
42.541
Almond
2
1.248
3.82
3.410
0.752
37.60
37.597
Walnut
2
1.449
3.40
2.208
0.551
27.55
27.544
Pista
2
1.485
3.34
2.828
0.515
25.75
25.748
Raisin
2
1.497
12.12
6.479
0.503
25.15
25.120
Hazelnut
2
1.550
3.46
2.387
0.450
22.50
22.496
Date
2
1.713
9.26
7.764
0.287
14.35
14.346
Apricot
2
1.862
17.54
14.607
0.138
6.90
6.896
Coconut
2
1.996
2.98
2.550
0.004
0.20
0.200
Chilgoza
2
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
63
PLODIA INTERPUNCTELLA ASA POTENTIAL PEST OF DRY FRUITS
larvae failed to survive on apricot, coconut and
chilgoza as they do not get sufficient nutrition
to reach maturity. In fact, the larvae did consume
some food in the case of apricot and coconut but
died before reaching the pupal stage. In the case
of chilgoza, on the contrary, the larvae did not
consume any food.
The relative suitability of different foods was
also determined with the help of the formula Log
eY/T, given by Osuji (1976), where Y is the number
of progeny, T is the time taken by 50% of the adults
to emerge and e is a constant with a value of 2.303
(Table 2). Pista, walnut and hazelnut, with a
suitability index value of 1.743, 1.590 and 1.393,
were the most suitable food while date with an
index value of 0.085 was the least suitable food.
The relative susceptibility of various foods
can be judged by combining the amount of food
consumed with the index of suitability (Table 3).
Cashewnut and pista with susceptibility index
values of 49.773 and 44.878 respectively, were the
most susceptible foods whereas date with the index
value of 1.219 was the least susceptible food.
Table 2
RELATIVE SUITABILITY OF 12 DRY FRUITS TO THE
ATTACK BY PLODIA INTERPUNCTELLA (H.)
(based on three replications of 1 0 eggs each)
Food
Progeny
Y
(Average)
Development
period
(Todays)
Index of
suitability
L°SeY/T50
Pista
24
31.71
1.743
Walnut
25
36.20
1.590
Hazelnut
21
34.71
1.393
Cashewnut
25
49.20
1.170
Almond
24
49.04
1.127
Mulberry
14
81.21
0.397
Fig
8
101.38
0.181
Raisin
5
94.60
0.121
Date
4
104.25
0.085
Apricot
Nil
Nil
Nil
Coconut
Nil
Nil
Nil
Chilgoza
Nil
Nil
Nil
Loge = 2.303 (constant)
T-0 = Time taken by 50% of the adults to emerge.
It is clear from the data in Tables 2 and 3
that the order of relative suitability and relative
susceptibility of the foods was different. This is
so because cashewnut undergoes maximum
weight loss though the development period on
this food is long. It is the duration of the
Table 3
RELATIVE SUSCEPTIBILITY OF 12 DRY FRUITS TO
THE ATTACK BY PLODIA INTERPUNCTELLA (H.)
Food
Suitability
index value
(a)
‘ Corrected
mean % age
of weight
loss
(b)
Susceptibility
index value
(axb>
Cashewnut
1.170
42.541
49.773
Pista
1.743
25.748
44.879
Walnut
1 .590
27.544
43.795
Almond
1.127
37.597
42.372
Mulbeiry
0.397
90.768
36.035
Hazelnut
1.393
22.496
31.337
Fig
0.181
70.345
12.732
Raisin
0.121
25.120
3.039
Date
0.085
14.346
1.219
Apricot
Nil
6.896
Nil
Coconut
Nil
0.200
Nil
Chilgoza
Nil
Nil
Nil
development period that pushes the cashewnut
at number 4 in term of suitability index. However,
maximum weight loss by cashewnut pushes its
susceptibility index to number 1. There is little
difference in the two indices of pista and date which
occupy the same order in the lists of both indices.
The resistance among ten cultivars of pista
procured from Tehran Agriculture University was
tested on the same pattern as followed for
different fruits and susceptibility index was
calculated in the same manner The obtained
results are give in Tables 4, 5 and 6.
Table 4 reveals that varieties kGH’ and
‘WA’ underwent a minimum weight loss of
0.439 gm and 0.465 gm respectively whereas,
‘MO’ underwent a maximum weight loss of
0.660 gm.
The progeny from 30 eggs on each food
varied from 20 to 28 and the developmental period
differed from 22.5 to 26.83 days (Table 5).
64
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1 ) APR. 2000
PLODIA INTERPUNCTELLA ASA POTENTIAL PEST OF DRY FRUITS
Table 4
WEIGHT LOSS OF TEN VARIETIES OF PISTA DUE TO THE ATTACK OF PLODIA INTERPUNCTELLA (H. )
(based on three observations)
Food
Initial Weight
Final Weight
Moisture Content
Weight
Mean
Corrected
of food
of food
M,
m2
loss
%age
mean % age
mean (gm)
mean (gm)
weight loss
weight loss
‘MO’
2
1.340
4.380
4.029
0.660
33.000
32.998
‘FA’
2
1.363
4.600
4.400
0.637
31.850
31.849
‘KA’
2
1.406
4.420
4.196
0.594
29.700
29.699
‘JA’
2
1.431
4.160
3.913
0.569
28.450
28.449
‘EB’
2
1.433
4.100
3.698
0.567
28.350
28.348
‘SH'
2
1.471
4.620
4.554
0.529
26.450
26.449
‘OH’
2
1.498
4.680
4.270
0.502
25.100
25.098
‘RE’
2
1.524
4.480
3.608
0.476
23.800
23.796
‘WA’
2
1.535
4.360
3.452
0.465
23.250
23.246
‘GH’
2
1.561
4.520
4.290
0.439
21.950
21.949
MO =
Momtaz FA =
Fandoghi
KA
= Kallehghoochi JA
= Jabbary
EB =
Ebrahimi
SH =
Shasti OH =
O’hadi
RE
= Rezaia
WA
= Wahedi
GH =
Gholam Rezaia
It is clear from the susceptibility index
results (Table 6), that the varieties ‘FA’ and
‘MO’ with the susceptibility index values of
84.750 and 77.578 were the most susceptible
foods while the varieties ‘RE’ and ‘WA’ with
the index value of 41.1 19 and 45.887, were the
least susceptible foods.
The result of this study reveal that dry fruits
like cashewnut, pista, walnut, almond, hazelnut
Table 5
RELATIVE SUITABILITY OF TEN VARIETIES
OF PISTA TO THE ATTACK BY
PLODIA INTERPUNCTELLA (H.)
(based on three replications of 1 0 eggs each)
Food
Progeny
Y
(Average)
Development
period
(Todays)
Index of
suitability
L°ScY/T50
‘FA’
26
22.50
2.661
‘O’H’
28
25.64
2.514
‘GH’
26
24.23
2.471
‘KA’
27
25.48
2.440
‘MO’
25
24.48
2.351
‘JA’
26
25.65
2.334
‘SH’
25
25.12
2.291
‘EB’
22
23.77
2.131
‘WA’
23
26.83
1 .974
‘RE’
20
26.65
1.728
Loge = 2.303 (constant)
T = Time taken by 50% of the adults to emerge.
and mulberry are preferred foods of Plodici
interpunctella (Hubner) and therefore special care
should be taken to save these commodities from
the attack of this pest. The damage to fig and raisin
is not much and therefore, no special care is
required for protection of these two fruits. The
remaining three fruits namely apricot, coconut and
chilgoza are not attacked by the pest in nature.
Some larval feeding is witnessed on apricot and
Table 6
RELATIVE SUSCEPTIBILITY OF TEN VARIETIES
OF PISTA TO THE ATTACK B.Y
PLODIA INTERPUNCTELLA (H.)
Food
Suitability
index value
(a)
Corrected
mean % age
of weight
loss
(b)
Susceptibility
index value
(axb)
‘FA’
2.-661
31.849
• 84. 750
‘MO’
2.351
32.998
77. 578
‘KA’
2.440
29.699
72.465
‘JA’
2.334
28.449
66. 400
‘O’H’
2.514
25.098
63. 096
‘SH’
2.291
26.449
60.594
‘EB’
2.131
28.348
60. 409
‘GH’
2.471
2 1 .949
54. 235
‘WA’
1.974
23.246
45. 887
‘RE’
1.728
23.796
41.1 19
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
65
PLOD1A INTERPUNCTELLA ASA POTENTIAL PEST OF DRY FRUITS
coconut under experimental conditions, whereas
no feeding takes place in case of chilgoza.
Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to the Chairman,
Refer
Almasi, Radmila, Z. Srdic & T. Stojanovic (1987):
Influence of food on the fecundity and fertility of
Indian meal moth {Plodia interpunctella Hbn.)
(Lepidoptera: Phycitidae, ZastBilja 38(4): 309-316.
Bell, C.H. (1976a): Effect of cultural factors on the
development of four stored product moths. J. Stored
Prod. Res. 12: 185-193.
Bell, C.H. (1976b): Factors governing the induction of
diapause in Ephestia elutella and Plodia
interpunctella (H.) (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae). Physiol.
Ent. 7:83-91.
Bell, C.H. & D.J. Walker ( 1 973): Diapause induction in
Ephestia elutella (Hubner) and Plodia interpunctella
(Hubner) (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae) with a dawn dusk
lighting system. J. Stored Prod. Res. 9: 149-158.
Grant, G.G. ( 1 974): Male sex pheromone from the wing
glands of the Indian meal moth, Plodia interpunctella
(Hbn.) (Lepidoptera : Phycitidae). Experientia. 30:
917-918.
Grant, G.G. ( 1 976): Female coyness and receptivity during
courtship in Plodia interpunctella (Lepidoptera :
Pyralidae). Can. Ent. 108: 975-979.
Grant, G.G. &U.E. Brady (1975): Courtship behaviour
of phycitid moths (1) comparison of Plodia
interpunctella and Cadra cautella and role of male
scent glands. Can. J. Zool. S3: 813-826.
Hamlin, J.C., W.D. Reed& M.E. Philips (1931): Biology
of the Indian meal moth on dried fruits in California.
U.S.D.A. Technical Bull No. 242.
Hoppe, T, (1981): Food preference - oviposition and
development of the Indian meal moth, Plodia
interpunctella (H.) on different products and chocolate
industry. Z. Angew Entomol. 91(2): 170-179.
Jamieson, M.F.S. (1970): A simple tool for calculating loss
or gain in weight resulting from a change in the
moisture content of produce. Trop. Stored Prod. Int.
19-20.
Lecato, G.L. (1976): Yield, development and weight of
Cadra cautella (Walk) and Plodia interpunctella
(H.) on twenty-one diets derived from natural
products. J. Stored Prod. Res. 12:43-41.
Department of Zoology, Panjab University,
Chandigarh for research facilities. The first
author is also thankful to the Government of Iran
for providing necessary funds for studying in
the Panjab University, Chandigarh.
N C E S
Mbata, G.N. ( 1 985): Some physical and biological factors
affecting oviposition by Plodia interpunctella
(Lepidoptera : Phycitidae). Insect. Sci. Appl. 6(5):
597-604.
Mbata, G.N. (1987): Studies on the susceptibility of
groundnut varieties to infestation by Plodia
interpunctella (H.) (Lepidoptera : Pyralidae). J.
Stored Prod. Res. 23(1): 57-63.
Mbata, G.N. ( 1 990): Suitability of mai/e varieties for the
oviposition and development of Plodia interpunctella
(H.) (Lepidoptera : Pyralidae). Trop. Pest Manage.
36(2): 122-127.
Mbata, G.N. & F.N.C. Osuji ( 1 983): Some aspects of the
biology of Plodia interpunctella ( H.) (Lepidoptera :
Pyralidae), a pest of stored products in Nigeria. J.
Stored Prod. Res. 19(3): 141-151.
Mullen, M.A. & R.T. Arbogast (1977): Influence of
substrate on oviposition by two species of stored
product moths. Environ. Ent. 6(5): 641-642.
Myers, J.G. (1928): Report on insect infestation of dried
fruits. Empire Marketing Board No. 12.
Ono, T. (1981 ): Factors releasing the copulation attempt
in three species of Phycitidae. Appl. Entomol. Zool.
16(1): 24-28.
Osuji, F.N. (1976): A comparison of the susceptibility of
cowpea varieties to infestation by Callosobruchus
maculatus (Coleoptera : Bruchidae). Ent. Exp. and
Appl. 20: 209-217.
Rangaswamy, J.R. (1985): Sex pheromones of stored
product insect pests. J. Sci. Jnd. Res. (India). 44(9):
491-500.
Simmons, P. (1931): Fig insects in California. U.S.D.A.
Circular No. 157.
Stein, W. (1990): Investigations about the development of
stored product insects at fruits of indigenous trees
and shrubs. Anz. Schaedlingskd Pflanzenschutz
Umweltschutz. 63(3): 41-46.
Williams, G.C. ( 1 964): The life history of the Indian meal
moth, Plodia interpunctella (H.) in a warehouse in
Britain and on different foods. Ann. Appl. Biol. 53:
459-475.
66
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1) APR. 2000
FRESHWATER CLADOCERA (CRUSTACEA : BRANCHIOPODA)
OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS1
K. Venkataraman2
( With one text-figure)
Key words: Cladocera, 38 species, Andaman and Nicobar Islands
During 1990-92, 221 Cladocera samples were collected from 106 freshwater habitats throughout
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. A total of 38 species belonging to 21 genera of five families
were identified, of which 24 were chydorids and 14 nonchydorids. The seven regions, viz. north,
middle, south and little Andaman, Carnicobar, Nancowry group and Great Nicobar, were divided
into two groups for the present study. All the seven stations were compared by the Sorensen
index of similarity, and Koch index of biotal dispersity. The indices are generally high, reflecting
the small number of species involved and their wide distribution, but two groups of stations are
easily discernible. The indices for the Nicobar group of islands are somewhat lower, being
influenced by the erratic occurrence of eurytopic species such as Moina micrura , Ceriodaphnia
cornuta and Macrothrix spinosa , but they are clearly interrelated.
Introduction
The Andaman and Nicobars consist of over
550 islands, including several archipelagoes with
a land area of 8,293 sq km. Being oceanic
islands, they have hilly terrain and virgin forests,
free flowing streams and cavities where water
logging takes place throughout the monsoon.
Irrigation reservoirs or lakes are absent, except
for a few very small dams used mainly for
drinking water (Danikari dam and Dilthaman
tank, Port Blair). A few perennial water bodies,
and many temporary cavities and rice fields are
the main wetlands, where this study was
conducted.
The Cladocera are dominant micro-
crustaceans in the freshwater habitats of the
Andaman and Nicobar islands, but they are not
known taxonomically and ecologically as
compared to those in the surrounding regions,
such as the Indian mainland (Venkataraman,
1983; 1992a; Michael and Sharma, 1988;
Venkataraman and Das, 1993), Sri Lanka
'Accepted November, 1 997
Zoological Survey of India
100, Santhome High Road,
Chennai 600 028, Tamil Nadu, India.
(Rajapaksha and Fernando, 1987), Malaysia (Idris,
1983) and the Philippines (Marnaril, 1977). Except
for Venkataraman ( 1 99 1 , 1 992b, c), no worker has
studied the freshwater bodies of Andaman and
Nicobar Islands. Hence, this study on the
occurrence of Cladocera was undertaken in the
freshwater habitats of Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.
Material and Methods
During 1990-92, 221 samples of Cladocera
were collected from 106 freshwater habitats
throughout the North (NA), Middle (MA) and
South Andaman (SA), (Diglipur, Mayabunder,
Rangat, Kadamthala, Port Blair, Havelock, Ross
Islands and Little Andaman), Carnicobar (CN),
Nancowry Group (NG) and Great Nicobar (GN)
of Nicobar Islands (Fig. 1). Samples were
collected from ponds, marshes, reservoirs, rice
fields, dams, streams and rainwater pools, using
a plankton net of 45 cm diameter, with circular
mouth. The samples were usually collected in
shallow water, among vegetation and in clear
water. The net was dragged close to the bottom;
excessive stirring of the mud was avoided. This
technique gave a qualitative sample of shallow
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1), APR. 2000
67
FRESH W A TER CLADOCERA OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS
water invertebrates living on the substratum,
among vegetation and in the water column as in
rice fields or marshes. The normal annual rainfall
was 3,180 mm, mean max. temp. 29.98 °C and
the mean min. temp. 23. 1 3 °C. The mean relative
humidity was 79%.
Descriptions of Some Rare Species
Brief descriptions of five rare species
reported in the present study are given below.
All the other 33 species recorded in this study
have been described by Michael and Sharma
(1988) from the Indian mainland, Malaysia
(Idris, 1983) and Sri Lanka (Rajapaksha and
Fernando, 1987).
Family Sididae
Diaphanosoma volzi Stingelin 1905
Material examined: 5 females from
Bomila creek marsh, Little Andaman.
Female: Body size 0.73 mm. Head rounded
and small, eye relatively large. Valves straight
on ventral margin, duplicature forming a wide
angle, posteroventral comer rounded, without
denticles except for a long spine on the posterior
margin. Postabdomen with three long and
sharply pointed basal spines.
Remarks: Very rare. The material agrees
with the description often mentioned under the
name D. aspinoswn by Chiang (1956) from
China, and by Idris (1983) from Malaysia.
Family Macrothricidae
Guernella raphalis Richard 1892
Material examined: 3 females from Hut
Bay nalla, Little Andaman, several females from
roadside ponds in Wandoor, Port Blair.
Female: Body size 0.41 mm. Carapace
68
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1). APR. 2000
FRESHWA TER CLADOCERA OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS
slightly oval. Head rounded anteriorly and
concave ventrally; eye large, ocellus at the apex
of rostrum. Antennule short and broad with
lateral setae. Valves with polygonal reticulations,
broadly rounded distally, ventral margin rounded
and serrated. Claw short without basal spine.
Macrothrix laticornis (Jurine 1820)
Material examined: 6 females from
Kadamthala fish pond (NA).
Female: Body size 0.48 mm. Head
rounded; rostrum small with two antennules
implanted with a bunch of subapical long spines
and four rows of dorsal spines. Ventral margin
with movable spines. Postabdomen thick and
swollen, with numerous fine spines.
Family Chydoridae
Pleuroxus denticulatus Birge 1879
Material examined: 5 females from Yatrik
pond, 7 females from Schoolline pond, 22
females from Coast Guard pond.
Female: Body size 0.42 mm. Shape
broadly oval, with striated carapace.
Posteroventral comer with 2-4 denticles. Rostrum
long and pointed. Ocellus situated closer to the
eye than to apex of rostrum. Postabdomen with
14-16 denticles with two basal spines on the claw.
Alona cf. dentifera (Sars 1901)
Material examined: 9 females from
Mumgan temple pond, 6 females from Schoolline
pond, Port Blair (SA).
Female: Body size 0.45 mm. Valves with
longitudinal lines. Posteroventral corner
rounded, with three denticles. Ocellus slightly
smaller than eye, situated half-way between eye
and tip of rostrum. Labrum rounded anteriorly,
slightly pointed ventrally. Postabdomen with
prominent preanal and postanal corner, with 1 1
groups of denticles. Claw long, with a long basal
spine.
Remarks: Rare. New record to India. Idris
(1983) shifted this species from the genus
Alonella to Alona. More studies are required to
confirm the identity of this species.
Results and Discussion
A total of 38 species belonging to 2 1 genera
of 5 families were identified in the 22 1 samples
collected from different habitats during
1989-1991, of which 24 were chydorids and 14
nonchydorids. Of all the samples, only 10
contained no cladocerans. There were great
differences between the islands in the number of
cladocerans collected (Table 1).
As in the Northeast (Venkataraman, 1994,
1995), as well as Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan
(Venkataraman, 1983, 1992a), cladocerans of the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands are a mixture of
tropical and temperate species (Table 2).
Ceriodaphnia cornuta , Moina micrura and
Diaphanosoma excisum are considered to be
typically tropical species widely distributed from
the northernmost tip Diglipur, to the other end,
Great Nicobar. Diaphanosoma volzi , Macrothrix
laticornis , Pleuroxus denticulatus , Chydorus
pubescens , Alona cf. dentifera and Leydigia
acanthocercoides, which are considered to be
temperate in origin, occur in Andaman and
Nicobar Is. (Table 1).
Cladoceran hatching and growth rate is
controlled by temperature, which ranged from
29-32 °C (Table 3) in the study. The pH range of
these wetlands was narrow, 7.25 to 8.90. Previous
workers Bayly (1963), Moitra and Bhattacharya
(1965) and Chengalath (1982) showed that
Cladocera and other freshwater, zooplankton
populations vary inversely with pH. However, the
present study does not show any such significant
variation.
The study areas receive monsoon rain
from March through October. This continuous
rainfall dilutes the ionic strength and nutrient
levels of the water, which in turn may affect the
proliferation of cladoceran population. It also
increases the oxygen content of the water along
JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000
69
FRESH W A TER CL A DOCERA OF THE A NDA MAN AND N I CO BA R IS LA NDS
Table 1
OCCURRENCE OF CLADOCERA (IN NUMBER OF SAMPLES) IN DIFFERENT REGIONS OF ANDAMAN AND
NICOBAR ISLANDS (TOTAL NUMBER OF SAMPLES COLLECTED IS GIVEN IN PARENTHESIS)
Andaman
Nicobar
SI. No. Cladocera species
North
Andaman
(20)
Middle
Andaman
(30)
South
Andaman
(96)
Little
Andaman
(44)
Carnicobar
(10)
Nancowry
Group
(6)
Great
Nicobar
(15)
Family Sididae
1 . Pseudosida bidentata
2
-
-
-
-
-
-
2. Latonopsis australis
-
-
3
1
-
-
1
3. Diaphanosoma sarsi
3
4
10
3
-
-
2
4. Diaphanosoma excisum
1
3
28
-
-
-
-
5. Diaphanosoma volzi
-
-
-
1
-
-
-
Family Daphniidae
6. Ceriodaphnia cornuta
5
7
18
6
3
1
3
7. Scapholeberis kingi
-
1
7
-
-
-
-
Family Moinidae
8. Moina micrura
6
13
19
5
-
-
1
9. Moinodaphnia macleayi
-
-
5
-
-
-
-
Family Macrothricidae
1 0 . Macrothrix spinosa
1
1
9
3
-
1
3
1 1 . Macrothrix laticornis
-
1
-
-
-
-
1 2. Echinisca triserialis
-
-
18
2
-
1
-
1 3 . Ilyocryptus spinifer
-
1
7
3
-
-
-
14. Guernella raphalis
-
-
2
1
-
■
_
Family Chydoridae
Subfamily Chydorinae
15. Pleuroxus similis
4
1 6. Pleuroxus denticulatus
-
-
6
-
-
-
- -
17. Chydorus ventricosus
-
1
19
3
-
-
-
18. Chydorus reticulatus
7
13
22
5
-
-
-
19. Chydorus eurynotus
5
6
9
2
-
1
1
20. Chydorus parvus
-
1
6
-
-
-
■
2 1 . Chydorus barroisi
-
-
17
-
-
-
-
2 2 . Chydorus pubes cens
-
1
-
-
-
-
-
23. Dadaya macrops
1
2
8
2
-
-
1
24. Dunhevedia crassa
-
2
12
3
-
-
1
25. Dunhevedia serrata
-
1
7
-
-
-
*
Subfamily Aloninae
26. A Iona monacantha
1
-
8
-
-
-
■
27 . A Iona cf. dentifera
-
-
3
-
-
-
-
28. Alona pulchella
-
6
12
4
-
-
-
29. Alona guttata
-
2
-
-
-
■
■
30. Alona davidi
-
-
18
5
-
-
•
31. Alona karua
2
5
12
3
-
-
-
32. Alona verrucosa
-
-
6
-
-
-
-
3 3 . Oxyurella sinhalensis
' -
-
10
-
-
-
-
34. Kurzia longirostris
1
-
7
2
-
-
1
35. Euryalona orientalis
-
-
4
-
-
-
■
36. Notalona globulosa
2
-
7
-
-
"
3 7 . Leydigia acanthocercoides
1
1
3
-
-
■
1
38. Leydigia australis
-
-
4
-
■
■
'
Total number of species
14
20
32
19
1
4
10
70
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1). APR. 2000
FRESHWATER CLADOCERA OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS
Table 2
OCCURRENCE OF SPECIES OF CLADOCERA IN DIFFERENT STATES OF INDIA
SI. No.
Name of the family
Number of species of Cladocera
Tamil Nadu
Rajasthan
West Bengal
Tripura
Andaman and
Nicobar
India (total)
1.
Sididae
5
5
5
5
5
6
2.
Daphniidae
12
12
9
7
2
17
3.
Moinidae
2
4
3
2
2
5
4.
Bosminidae
-
1
2
2
-
2
5.
Macrothricidae
4
8
6
4
5
8
6.
Chydoridae
23
24
32
29
24
47
Total
46
54
57
49
38
85
with the nutrient level in the wetlands of
Andaman (Table 4).
The seven regions viz. north, middle, south
and little Andaman, Carnicobar, Nancowry
group and Great Nicobar have been divided into
two groups for the puipose of the present study.
The four northern regions known as the
Andaman group have fourteen or more species
Table 3
PHYSICOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS OF THE FRESHWATER PONDS AND LAKES STUDIED
IN ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS.
SI. No. Name of the pond
Date
pH
Surface
water
Temp.
°C
Conductivity
mmhos
O,
mg/I
Transparency
cm
1.
Mayabundar (NA)
23.01.91
5.5
-
8.70
'*
-
2.
Schoolline pond (SA)
28.04.90
-
-
3.80
-
-
3.
Dhobi pond (SA)
21.05.90
8.53
32.3
1.30
4.10
30
4.
Yatrikpond I (SA)
21.05.90
7.95
33.0
2.00
8.10
75
5.
Bay Island Hotel Pond (SA)
25.05.90
8.70
31.2
4.00
10.42
50
6.
Murugankoil pond (SA)
02.06.90
7.09
29.9
2.40
6.05
7.
Murugankoil pond (SA)
02.07.90
7.17
30.8
2.00
-
-
8.
Dhobi pond (SA)
02.07.90
7.59
30.2
7.30
-
-
9.
Murugankoil pond (SA)
09.07.90
7.78
31.2
6.90
-
10.
Murugankoil pond (SA)
17.7.90
7.29
29.5
7.50
5.70
-
11.
Murugankoil pond (SA)
18.07.90
7.04
30.4
8.00
5.90
■ -
12.
Murugankoil pond (SA)
19.07.90
7.26
30.2
3.00
5.20
-
13.
Yatrikpond(SA)
27.7.90
8.94
31.5
1.90
6/00
-
14.
Dhobi pond (SA)
18.07.90
8.50
31.5
6.60
10.30
-
15.
Dhobi pond (SA)
19.07.90
7.34
29.7
5.70
5.30
-
16.
Coastguard Pond (SA)
19.07.90
8.36
30.1
2.00
6.20
-
17.
Schoolline pond (SA)
08.08.90
7.35
31.4
0.11
7.78
-
18.
Yatrik pond (SA)
08.10.90
7.26
30.8
2.00
8.00
-
19.
Havelock pond I (SA)
23.01.91
5.50
-
8.70
-
-
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1), APR. 2000
71
FRESHWA TER CLADOCERA OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS
Table 4
PHYSICOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS OF THE SURFACE RUN OFF WATER BEFORE AND AFTER RAIN
IN THE CANALS OF PORT BLAIR DURING MAY 1 990
SI. Canals of Port Blair Conductivity in pH 02mg/l Total solid Dissolved solids
No. mmhos mg/1 mg/1
Before
Rain
After
Rain
Before
Rain
After
Rain
Before
Rain
After .
Rain
Before
Rain
After
Rain
Before
Rain
After
Rain
1.
Murugan temple
4.6
6.9
7.40
7.02
6.54
6.43
120
3800
500
1200
2.
Shadipur canal
2.1
4.1
7.61
7.48
6.34
6.63
340
2000
500
1400
3.
Phoenix Bay canal
8.0
11.3
7.51
7.49
4.27
4.73
3300
5700
1000
2000
4.
Anarkali canal
9.3
8.4
7.88
7.64
6.19
6.53
770
21800
700
2200
5.
Megapod Nest canal
3.3
3.4
7.68
7.70
5.88
6.36
1250
1300
200
900
Mean
6.0
8.37
7.64
7.49
5.97
6.25
683
6017
533
3000
Deviation
2.57
4.76
0.17
0.25
0.86
0,76
577
7910
287
3609
of Cladocera each, while the southern three
regions known as the Nicobar group have only
one to ten species.
The seven stations have been compared
by the Sorensen index of similarity. This was
calculated for each combination of stations
according to the following equation (Sorensen,
1948): S=2c/a+b x 100, where ‘c’ is the number
of species common to both associations, ‘a’ the
number of species in one association and ‘b’ the
number of species in the other association. The
results for 21 pairs of stations are given in Table
5. The indices are generally high, reflecting the
small number of species involved and their wide
distribution, but the two groups of stations are
easily discernible. Andaman group (4 stations)
have highly interrelated indices. Those for the
Nicobar group are lower, being influenced by
the erratic occurrence of eurytopic species such
as Moina micrura , Ceriodaphnia cornuta and
Macrothrix spinosa, but they are clearly
interrelated. Andaman Islands closely resemble
each other, the Great Nicobar closely resembles
Nancowry group, whereas Camicobar is unique
(Table 5).
Koch (1957) has devised an index ofbiotal
dispersity (IBD) which can be used to assess the
wide dispersity of species between islands.
IBD =T-S/S(n-1 ) x 100, where ‘T’ is the
arithmetical sum of species living in each ‘iT
compared associations and ‘S’ is the total list
of species in ‘iT compared associations. If each
station had a completely different set of species,
‘S’ should equal ‘T’ and the IBD would be 0%.
If each station had an identical set of species,
‘T’ would equal n x S and the IBD would be
100%.
When the Koch index for all seven stations
was calculated, the resulting IBD was 27, but
when separate indices were calculated for the
Andaman and Nicobar groups, there was an
increase in the IBD for the former (40) and a
decrease for the latter (18). The large increase
in IBD when the Andaman group were
considered separately indicates that these
Table 5
SORENSEN INDICES FOR CLADOCERA FROM
SEVEN DIFFERENT ISLAND GROUPS OF
ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
_
53
59
53
13
33
67
2
53
-
64
60
10
25
33
3
59
64
-
68
7
24
45
4
53
60
68
-
10
58
60
5
13
10
7
10
-
40
18
6
33
25
24
58
40
-
43
7
67
33
45
60
18
43
-
1 - North Andaman; 2- Middle Andaman; 3 - South Andaman;
4 - Little Andaman; 5 - Camicobar; 6 - Nancowry Group;
7 - Great Nicobar.
72
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
FRESHWA TER CLADOCERA OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS
regions resemble each other in Cladocera fauna
much more than they resemble the Nicobar group.
This agrees well with the Sorensen indices.
Acknowledgements
I thank the Director, ZSI, Calcutta, Officer-
in-charge Andaman and Nicobar Regional
Refer
Bayly, I.A.E. (1963): Reversed diurnal vertical migration
of planktonic Crustacea in inland waters of low
hydrogen ion concentration, Nature , 200 : 704-705.
Chengalath. R. (1982): A faunistic and ecological survey
of the littoral Cladocera of Canada, Can. J. Zool.
60: 2668-2682.
Chiang, S.C. (1956): Some species of Diaphanosoma
(Cladocera) from Wuchang, China (in Chinese with
English Summary). Acta Hydrobiologia Sinica, 2:
31-2-341. -
Idris, B.A.G. (1983): Freshwater zooplankton of Malaysia
(Crustacea : Cladocera), Penerbit Universiti
Pertanian Malaysia, 153 pp.
Koch, L.P. (1957): Index ofbiotal dispersity. Ecology, 38:
145-148.
Mamaril, A.C. (1977): Freshwater zooplankton of
Philippines (Rotifera, Cladocera and Copepoda)
M.Sc. thesis, University of Waterloo, Canada,
151 pp.
Michael R.G. & B.K. Sharma (1988): Fauna of India,
Indian Cladocera (Crustacea : Branchiopoda :
Cladocera) Ed. Director, Zoological Survey of India,
262 pp.
Moitra, J.K. & B.K. Bhattacharya (1965): Some
hydrological factors affecting plankton production
in a fish-pond in Kalyani, West Bengal, India,
Ichthyologia, 4: 8-12.
Rajapaksa, R. & C.H. Fernando (1987): Redescription
and assignment of Alona globulosa Dady 1 898 to
Station and Marine Biological Station for
facilities for preparing this paper. I also thank
Dr. H.S. Mehta, Shri Bulganin Mitra, Dr. Sanjeev
Kumar, Shri P.T. Rajan, Shri Sukla, Shri
Ponnusamy, Shri Deivaprakasam and Shri
Selvaraj of Andaman and Nicobar Regional
Station for their valuable help in collecting the
specimens.
ENC ES
new genus Notoalona and a description of
Notoalona freyi sp. nov., Hycirobiologia. 144:
131-153.
Sorensen, T. (1948): A method of establishing group of
equal amplitude in plant sociology based on
similarity of species content and its application to
analysis of the vegetation on Danish commons, Biol.
Skr. 5(4): 1-34.
Venkataraman, K. (1983): Taxonomy and Ecology of
Cladocera of southern Tamil Nadu. Ph.D. thesis,
Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai, 190 pp.
Venkataraman, K. (1991): Freshwater Cladocera of Little
Andaman, J. Andaman Sci. Assoc. 6: 60-62.
Venkataraman, K. (1992a): I. Cladocera of Keoladeo
National Park, Bharatpur and its environs,
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Venkataraman, K. (1992b): Freshwater Cladocera of
Andaman, J. Andaman Sci. Assoc. 8: 133-137.
Venkataraman, K. (1992c): Occurrence of male
Cladoceran of Moinodaphnia macleayi (King) in
oriental region, / Andaman. Sci. Assoc. 8: 179-180.
Venkataraman, K. (1994): Cladocera In: State Fauna
Series 3: Fauna of West Bengal, Part 10: 1-36.
Venkataraman, K. (1995): Freshwater Cladocera of
Tripura State, North Eastern India,/. Andaman Sci.
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JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1), APR. 2000
73
LONGICORN BEETLES (CERAMBYCINAE, PRIONINAE : CERAMBYCIDAE)
OF BUXA TIGER RESERVE, JALPAIGURI, WEST BENGAL1
Dinendra Raychaudhuri2 and Sumana Saha
C With twelve text-figures )
Key words: Taxonomy, Cerambycidae, Cerambycinae, Prioninae, Buxa Tiger Reserve, West Bengal
The paper deals with the taxonomy of 1 2 species of Cerambycidae (Cerambycinae and Prioninae)
of Buxa Tiger Reserve. Of these, 7 species Ceresium leucosticticum White, C. rufum Lameere,
Hoplocerambyx spinicornis Newman, Macrotoma (Zooblax) spinosa (Fabricius), Tetraommatus
filiformis Perroud, Thranius simplex Gahan and Xoanodera regular is Gahan, are new records
from the state of West Bengal. The species have been described and suitably illustrated.
Identification keys are provided wherever necessary.
Introduction
Family Cerambycidae refers to the
longhorn beetles. These coleopterans are wood
borers in their larval stages, for which they are
extremely important in any forest ecosystem.
Because of their great economic importance,
these beetles have received serious attention. Up
to 1200 species of cerambycids are reported from
the Indian region, largely dominated by the
Lamiinae (Beeson, 1961). The systematics,
biology and ecology of these beetles have been
worked out. Khan and Maiti ( 1 983) while dealing
with the biotaxonomy, biology and ecology of
some of these borers have reviewed the works of
others, e.g. Stebbing, Beeson, Beeson and Bhatia,
Husain and Khan, Bhasin and Roonwal, Bhasin
et al., and Dutt. Basak and Biswas (1993) have
remarked “our present state of knowledge of
longicom beetles of the state of Orissa is very
incomplete and fragmentary”, and “no
comprehensive work on the longicom beetles
from Orissa is available”. They, however, listed
32 species belonging to 27 genera under 3
subfamilies as the cerambycid fauna of Orissa.
Though they indicated the distribution of some
of these species in West Bengal, recent State
'Accepted June, 1999
:Entomology Laboratory, Department of Zoology,
University of Calcutta, 35, Ballygunge Circular Road,
Calcutta 700019, West Bengal, India.
Fauna Series 3: Fauna of West Bengal Pt 6A, 6B
(Insecta : Coleoptera), 1995-96 Z.S.I. did not
include Cerambycidae.
Our survey of Buxa forest, presently known
as Buxa Tiger Reserve ( Jalpaigun, West Bengal)
during 1994-97 revealed the existence of 12
species of longhorn beetles (Cerambycinae;
Prioninae) belonging to 1 1 genera. Raychaudhuri
(1996) had reported 10 species belonging to 10
genera of the same subfamilies from the forest.
Besides, we have several species of lamiids in
our collection. We now present the taxonomic
details of the beetles belonging to the subfamilies
Cerambycinae and Prioninae. Incidentally, Basak
and Biswas (1993) have not presented any
taxonomic key or detailed description of the 32
listed species. Such a taxonomic treatise is
necessary for India, as several decades have
elapsed since the publication of Gahan (1906).
This paper details the morphology of each
species, together with keys, even of the higher
categories. All the species have been illustrated.
Ceresium leucosticticum White, C. rufum
Lameere, Hoplocerambyx spinicornis Newman,
Macrotoma spinosa (Fabricius), Tetraommatus
filiformis Perroud, Thranius simplex Gahan and
Xoanodera regularis Gahan appear to be new
records from the state of West Bengal.
All the reported species are at present in
the collection of Entomology Laboratory,
Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta.
74
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
LONGICORN BEETLES OF BUXA TIGER RESERVE
Material and Methods
Insect samples have been collected and
preserved for further study following the
recommendations of Zoological Survey of India,
Calcutta (Ghosh and Sengupta, 1982).
Abbreviations used:
BG
-
Bhutanghat
—
B.T.R.
-
Buxa Tiger Reserve
DM
-
Damanpur
EL
-
Length of elytra
EW
*
Humeral width of elytra
FA
-
Apical width of frons
FL
-
Length of frons
A.
HW
-
Maximum width of head
JY
-
Jayanti
a.
LT
-
Light trap
NL
-
Newland
NM
-
Nimati
al
PA
-
Apical width of pronotum
PB
-
Basal width of pronotum
PK
-
Phaskhawa
—
PL
-
Length of pronotum
PN
-
Panbari
PW
-
Maximum width of pronotum
—
RB
-
Rajabhatkhawa
RM
-
Raimatang
SB
-
South Bholka
—
SR
-
South Raydak
TG
-
Tashigaon
B.
Taxonomy
Key to Subfamilies, Tribes and Genera
1. Prothorax marginate at sides, sometimes entire,
more frequently dentate or spinose; fore coxae
strongly transverse; antennae usually inserted
close to mandibular base; mesonotum without al .
stridulatory area (except in Philus ); vein Cu2
usually present; vein Al with a large
subelliptical cell Prioninae
A. Episterna of metathorax with posteriorly
converging sides, narrowly truncate or obtusely
pointed at apex; intercoxal process of
prosternum arched; lateral margins of prothorax
unarmed or with 1-3 spines or teeth; antennal
joints spinose; 1st antennal joint short
Megopidini, Megopis Serville
Episterna of metathorax parallel-sided for
greater part of their length, broadly truncate
behind; intercoxal process of prosternum flat
and horizontal; lateral margins of prothorax
crenulate, denticulate or spinulose; antennal
joints not spinose, if at all with short spines;
1 st antennal joint long or moderately long ....
Macrotomini, Macrotoma Serville
Prothorax emarginate at sides; fore coxae rarely
strongly transverse; antennae inserted at some
distance from base of mandibles; mesonotum
generally with stridulatory area; veins Cu2 and
branch of Cul usually absent; vein Al mostly
without any cell Cerambycinae
Intercoxal process of prosternum not or weakly
dilated at apex a
Ligula corneous; antennae never ciliated but
may have long pubescence; vein Cu2 absent
Oemini
Head flat between antennae; 1st coxae
contiguous; antennae never spinose or dentate
Tetraommatus Perroud
Head raised forming a ridge, broadly concave
between antennae; 1st coxae separate;
antennae dentate Xystfocera Serville
Ligula membranous; antennae ciliated; either
vein Cu2 or posterior branch of Cul absent ..
Hesperophanini, Stromatium Serville
Intercoxal process of prosternum distinctly
dilated at apex B
Acetabula of fore coxae closed or nearly closed
posteriorly, rarely angulated on outer side .... i
Metasternum with scent-pores; acetabula of
middle coxae extended to epimera
Callichromini, Aiiubis Thomson
Metasternum without scent-pores; acetabula of
middle coxae open to epimera
Cerambycini
Pronotum transversely irregularly wrinkled with
broken ridges; elytra with a spine at sutural apex;
1 st joint of hind tarsus nearly as long as the next
two united Hoplocerambyx Thomson
Pronotum without ridge, instead either
transversely grooved near base and apex or
with variable number of sharp, straight,
longitudinal costae; elytra without spine at
sutural apex; 1st joint of hind tarsus shorter
than next two united
Xoanodera Pascoe
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75
LONG1CORN BEETLES OF B UXA TIGER RESER VE
Fig. 1 : Anubis inermis (White): A. Whole body, B. Antenna, C. Hind leg
— Acetabula of fore coxae open posteriorly,
angulated on outer side ii
ii Eyes coarsely faceted
Callidiopsini, Ceresium Newman
— Eyes finely faceted iii
iii. Elytra dehiscent posteriorly, acuminate at
apex; front coxae prominent, contiguous;
prothorax parallel-sided
Thranini, Thranius Pascoe
— Elytra neither dehiscent nor acuminate at apex;
front coxae not prominent, globular and not
contiguous; prothorax with sides weakly to
distinctly rounded Clytini, Xylotrechus
Chevrolat
Subfamily 1 : Cerambycinae
Tribe: Callichromini
Genus: Anubis Thomson
Anubis , Thomson 1864, Syst. Ceramb. : 177.
Type-species: Anubis clavicornis Fabricius
Anubis inermis (White)
(Fig. 1)
Polyzonus inermis White 1853,
Cat. Coleopt. B.M., Longic.: 171.
Male: Head, antennal segment I, pro-
notum, scutellum, elytra at base and apex
chalybeate blue, pronotal disc and elytra
violaceous, elytra with a pair of yellow transverse
bands, one just above the middle and the other
just below the middle, antennae and legs blue-
black; body beneath clothed with silvery grey
pubescence.
Head at base narrower than pronotum,
much narrowed beyond eyes, densely and
coarsely punctate; vertex flat; frons midlongi-
tudinally sulcate between the antennae; clypeus
broad, flat, transverse; HW/PA 1.11; FA/FL 0.46;
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L ON G I CORN BEETLES OF B UXA TIGER RESER VE
mandibles robust, weakly curved, strongly
dentate; genae long, midlongitudinally faintly
raised, sloped on either side; eyes deeply
emarginate, extending beyond antennal support.
Antennae 1 1 -segmented, a little longer than
body, gradually swollen apically, segment III
longest, last segment longer than the
penultimate, obtuse at apex. Pronotum ovate
cylindrical, longer than broad, lateral margin
rounded, basally nearly straight, apically a little
constricted, densely and coarsely punctate; PL/
PA 1.52, PL/PW 1.0, PB/PA 1.0, PB/EW 3.09.
Scutellum small, triangular and obtuse, finely
and rather densely punctate. Elytra long,
parallel-sided, rounded at apex, finely and very
densely punctate, those near base large and
distinct, a pair of costae evidently running from
the middle of the base almost to apex; EL/EW
18.18; metasternum midlongitudinally sulcate
and free of pubescence; abdominal venter at sides
with more dense pubescence. Legs moderately
long, femora pedunculate, gradually subclavate,
densely punctate, joint 1 of hind tarsi longer than
2+3.
Body length: 13-17 mm.
Material examined: 1 male, PK, B.T.R.,
Jalpaiguri, West Bengal, 9.V.1994.
Distribution: india: Sikkim, West Bengal;
Laos; Malaysia; Myanmar; Pakistan; South
China; Thailand (Gahan, 1906; Gressitt and
Rondon, 1970).
Tribe: Callidiopsini
Genus: Ceresium Newman
Ceresium Newman, 1842. Entomologist, i: 322.
Type-species: Ceresium raripilum Newman
KEY TO SPECIES
1. Elytra with yellow-white pubescence, 1st pair
oblique, near scutellar apex, 2nd round,
transverse, marginal, 3rd oblique, close to
suture and 4th comma-shaped, transverse,
marginal near apex; head without any
pubescence near base; body brown-black;
antennae twice as long as body
leucosticticum White
— Elytra without any such pubescence; head with
yellow-white pubescence between eyes near
base; body reddish brown; antennae a little
shorter than body rufum Lameere
Ceresium leucosticticum White
(Fig. 2)
Ceresium leucosticticum White, 1855, Cat.
Col. B.M. Longic. 2: 245.
Male: Brown black, with elytra centro-
medially reddish, pronotum laterally with 2 pairs
of yellow white pubescence, 1st pair near apex,
other pair almost basal, scutellum with similar
pubescence, elytra also with similar pubescence
arranged thus: 1st pair near scutellar apex, rather
oblique, broad distally, 2nd pair at basal 1/3,
transverse, circular, placed marginally, 3rd almost
at midlength, near the suture, oblique, directed
towards apex, 4th near the turning of elytra,
transverse, marginal, comma-shaped, directed
towards apex, eyes at inner margin with semilunar
band of similar pubescence; antennae reddish
brown, with faint pubescence; legs reddish brown
with femora apically darker; body ventrally red
brown to dark brown, with yellow white
pubescence laterally.
Head a little narrower than pronotum,
densely punctate, concave between antennae; frons
midlongitudinally sulcate; vertex sloped towards
eyes, anteriorly truncate; clypeus transverse, band-
like; HW/PA 1.16; FA/FL 0.9; eyes emarginate.
Antennae 1 1 -segmented, slender, twice as long as
body, 1st joint closely punctate, little longer than
3rd, nearly equal to 4th, 5th and following
segments longer, 10th twice as long as 11th.
Pronotum elongately rectangular, longer than wide,
marginally rounded, medially broad, densely and
coarsely punctate, clothed with short hairs; PL/PA
1.15, PL/PW 1.15, PB/PA 0.93, PB/EW 1.40.
Scutellum small, obtuse. Elytra parallel-sided,
naiTOwed just before the truncate apex, densely
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77
LONGICORN BEETLES OF BUXA TIGER RESERVE
Fig. 2: Ceresium leucosticticum White: A. Whole body, B. Antenna, C. Hind leg
punctate, clothed with short hairs; EL/EW 5.35;
prostemum truncate, punctate; metastemum plate-
like, midlongitudinally with a black streak. Legs
moderately long, femora basally pedunculate,
apically clavate, hind legs extending much beyond
the abdomen.
Body length: 12 mm.
Material examined: 2 males, RB(LT),
B.T.R., Jalpaiguri, West Bengal, 22. v. 1995,
25. v. 1995.
Distribution: india : Assam (Gahan,
1906), West Bengal; Indonesia; Laos; Myanmar;
South China; Thailand (Gahan, 1906; Gressitt
and Rondon, 1970).
Ceresium rufum Lameere
(Fig. 3)
Ceresium rufum Lameere, 1890, Ann. Soc.
Ent. Beige, 34, C.R. : cc 11.
Male: Reddish brown, densely pubescent,
head with 2 white semilunar bands of
pubescence, pronotum with such pubescence
submarginally, anterior ones round, posterior
ones rather elongate and longitudinal, extending
a little on the basal margin, scutellum with
similar pubescence, elytra without any such,
antennae reddish brown, 9th joint onwards much
darker, legs reddish brown, body ventrally red
brown with white pubescence laterally.
Head narrower than pronotum, anteriorly
narrowed, densely punctate; frons concave,
midlongitudinally sulcate, anteriorly
subquadrate; vertex sloped towards eyes,
anteriorly truncate; clypeus transverse, band-like,
truncate; HW/PA 1.12, FA/FL 0.69; eyes
emarginate. Antennae 1 1 -segmented, slender, a
little shorter than body; 4th joint much shorter
than any of the succeeding joints, hairy beneath.
Pronotum elongately rectangular, longer than
wide, marginally rounded, broad medially;
pronotal disc with dense, coarse, transverse
rugosities, clothed with short hairs; PL/PA 1 .25,
PL/PW 1.00, PB/PA 1.04, PB/EW 2.06.
Scutellum small and obtuse. Elytra parallel-
sided, narrowed just before the truncate apex,
strongly punctate, those towards apex feeble and
scanty, clothed with short, dense hairs; EL/EW
8.31; prosternum truncate, punctate;
metasternum plate-like, midlongitudinally with
a black streak. Legs moderately long, clothed
with rather long pubescence, femora basally
pedunculate, apically clavate, hind legs extending
much beyond the abdomen.
78
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L ONG1CORN BEE TEES OF BOX A TIGER RESER VE
Fig. 3: Ceresium rufum Lameere: A. Whole body, B. Antenna, C. Hind leg
Body length: 13 mm.
Material examined: 1 male, SB(LT),
B.T.R., Jalpaiguri, West Bengal, 21.V.1997.
Distribution: india: Kunbur (Gahan,
1906), West Bengal; Myanmar (Beeson, 1961).
Tribe: Cerambycini
Genus: Hoplocerambyx Thomson
Hoplocerambyx Thomson, 1 864, Syst.
Ceramb.: 229.
Type-species: Hammciticherus spinicornis
Newman
Hoplocerambyx spinicornis (Newman)
(Fig. 4)
Hammciticherus spinicornis Newman,
1842, Entomologist, 1: 245.
Male: Pitch brown, ventrally more reddish;
head, pronotum, antennae, legs and underside
with fine grey pubescence, elytra more densely
covered with red-ochraceous silky pubescence,
faintly banded light and dark.
Head strongly exserted, apically finely
punctate, basally wrinkled, with the vertex deeply
grooved medially, extending between the eyes,
continuing as a shallow groove between antennal
supports, carinate on either side; frons oblique
with a fovea on each side; clypeus apically
sinuate, basal submedian area bi-tuberculate,
sloping towards the frontal fovea with a few long,
grey hairs at the corners; genae long; slightly
shorter than width of pronotum; HW/PA 1.22;
FA/FL 0.50; mandibles longer than in female,
straight at base; eyes deeply emarginate. not
extending beyond the antennal supports; gula
with 3 strong transverse ridges. Antennae 11-
segmented, 1/5 to 1/3 longer than body, faintly
pubescent, 1st to 7th segments sparsely but
strongly punctate, 3rd segment onwards spinose,
8th segment onwards gradually shortened and
almost weakly so on the last segment, flattened
or slightly canaliculate above. Pronotum a little
longer than broad, constricted in front, rounded
at the sides between the anterior constriction and
the base; the disc with a slightly raised oblong
space in the middle, the rest of the surface with
deep, irregular, transverse wrinkles, with the
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
79
LONGICORN BEETLES OF BUXA TIGER RESERVE
Fig. 4: Hoplocerambyx spinicorn is Newman: A. Whole body, B. Antenna, C. Hind leg
ridges more or less broken and convolute towards
the sides, at base with 2 transverse ridges
continuing up to the margin; PL/PA 1.22, PL/
PW 0.79, PB/PA 1.14, PB/EW 1.34. Scutellum
pitch brown, small and broadly triangular, with
grey pubescence. Elytra with a slight elevation
close to the suture at about 1/4 of their length;
each elytron convex, narrow posteriorly,
obliquely truncate at apex, with a spine at suture
and a feeble tooth at outer angle, the surface
(where rubbed bare of pubescence) with 2 kinds
of punctures, some minute and very dense, others
larger and less numerous, suture just below the
scutellum reflexed; EL/EW 5.39; prosternum
very sparsely scattered with punctures,
moderately pubescent, with hmd margin of
epipleural process moderately arcuate. Venters
of meso- and metathoracic segments hardly
punctate, clothed with silky grey pubescence,
metasternum midlongitudinally sulcate,
abdominal venter with fine silky pubescence.
Legs moderately long and stout; femora slightly
compressed, hind pair scarcely reaching the
elytral apex, gradually swollen apically and
widest at apical 3/5; hmd tibia long and slender;
hind tarsi 1 as long as 2+3; claw-bearing joint of
80
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L ON G I CORN BEETLES OF B UXA TIGER RESER VE
the tarsi long and paronychium nearly always
distinctly visible between the claws.
Body length: 32-51 mm.
Material examined: 2 males, PN, B.T.R.,
20. v. 1995; 1 male, RB, B.T.R., 20.V.1995; 1
female, DM, B.T.R., 23.V.1995; 2 males, JY(LT),
B.T.R., 24. v. 1995, 25.V.1995; 1 male, RB(LT),
16. ix. 1996; 1 male, SB, B.T.R., 20.V.1997; 1
male, NM, B.T.R., 21. v. 1997. All from
Jalpaiguri, W. Bengal
Distribution: india: Assam, Uttar Pradesh
(Gahan, 1906), Gujarat, Karnataka,
Maharashtra, Rajasthan (Beeson, 1961), Bihar,
Madhya Pradesh, Orissa (Basak and Biswas,
1993), West Bengal; Afghanistan; Indonesia;
Laos; Malaysia; Myanmar; Nepal; The
Philippines; Singapore; Sunda Island (Gahan,
1906; Gressitt and Rondon, 1970).
Genus: Xoanodera Pascoe
Xoanodera Pascoe, 1857, Ent. Soc. (2) iv : 92.
Type-species: Xoanodera trigona Pascoe
Xoanodera regularis Gahan
(Fig. 5)
Xoanodera regularis Gahan, 1890,
A.M.N.H. (6) V : 52.
Male : Dark brown, head, pronotum and
elytra (greater part) with dense yellowish-brown
pubescence, elytra at base with a ring-like dark
brown band encircling the scutellum and a lateral
area from the shoulders extending a little beyond
the middle dark brown, devoid of dense
pubescence; the narrow border between
submarginal carina and outer margin sparsely
pubescent. Head and 1st antennal joint closely
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81
LONGICORN BEETLES OF BUKA TIGER RESER VE
mgulose-punctate. Antennae reddish brown, with
a faint covering of grey pubescence. Pronotum
strongly and irregularly ridged, scantily clothed
with patches of tawny pubescence, laterally with
a dense, yellowish brown pubescence. Thoracic
and abdominal sternites rather densely covered
with greyish white pubescence, legs less so.
Head shorter and narrower than
pronotum, broadest across eyes, anteriorly sloped,
medially raised, posteriorly weakly sloped to a
little beyond the eyes, medially with a deep
longitudinal sulcus, 2 such on either side of the
median, or just behind the antennal socket; vertex
densely punctate, and entirely covered by
pubescence; frons medially lobed, enclosed by a
deep circular sulcus, anterolaterally broadly
produced, truncate; clypeus broadly rectangular;
HW/PA 1.20; FA/FL 0.50; mandibles broad at
base, curved, bluntly pointed at apex, with
lateromedian depression, outer margin reflexed
up to a little beyond the middle; eyes large, deeply
emarginate, extending almost to the frontal
sulcus, closely approximated above, with a
narrow space in between. Antennae 11-
segmented, a little shorter than body, densely
covered by minute pubescence; 5th to 10th joints
sharply edged in front and acutely angulated at
apex, 1 1th shorter than 10th. Pronotum as long
as broad, sides unevenly rounded, apex with 1
and base with 2 transverse grooves; PL/PA 1 .44,
PL/PW 0.90, PB/PA 1.17, PB/EW 1.66.
Scutellum obtuse, with dense pubescence. Elytra
parallel-sided, narrowed near apex, posterior
submarginal carina with apex truncate and feebly
bidentate; EL/EW 6.75; prosternum raised
between coxae, sharply deflexed posteriorly, and
dilated at the end to meet the epimera, acetabula
of front coxae not angulated outwards. Legs
moderately long, femora carinate on each side
near their lower portions; 1 st joint of hind tarsus
shorter than the next 2 united.
Body length: 20-21 mm.
Material examined: 2 males, SR,
Jalpaiguri, West Bengal, 5.iv.l993.
Distribution: India: North India?, West
Bengal; Laos; Myanmar (Gahan, 1906; Gressitt
and Rondon, 1970).
Tribe: Clytini
Genus: Xylotrechus Chevrolat
Xylotrechus Chevrolat, 1860, Ann. Soc. Ent.
Fr. : 456.
Type-species: Xylotrechus sartorii Chevrolat
Xylotrechus srnei (Lap. et Gory)
(Fig.: 6)
Clytus smei Lap. et Gory, 1841, Hist. Nat.
et Iconogr. des Ins. Coleopt. : 37.
Male: Black, head and most of pronotum
with olive green and yellowish pubescence, such
pubescence on elytra forming bands and spots;
pronotal disc with 3 black spots, one centrally
near base, the other two very near the middle,
but a little marginal; elytral bands and spots are
as follows: 1) elongately circular yellow band,
with the outer margin rather narrow, a little
discontinuous near the scutellar apex enclosing
(2) a transverse marginal yellow broad band
extending to the shoulder hump and narrowing
towards the suture, (3) midposteriorly with a
transverse yellow band at sutural margin, broad,
narrowed towards the margin, (4) apical yellow
band broad at apex and narrowed in front with
the margin oblique; venter with bands or spots
of whitish pubescence.
Head a little narrower than pronotum,
anteriorly sloped; vertex flat with a median
longitudinal carina bifurcating anteriorly; frons
with 4 carinae, outer ones strongly curved
inwardly, median ones nearly parallel-sided,
anteriorly united; clypeus transverse, ridged;
HW/PA 1.28; FA/FL 0.58. Antennae shorter
than half the body, 1st joint equal to 3rd, 3rd to
5th subequal, 6th to 10th gradually shorter.
Pronotum nearly squarish, a little longer than
wide, with lateral margins rounded, broadest just
below the middle, medially raised; PL/PA 1 .35,
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LONGICORN BEETLES OF B UXA TIGER RESER VE
Fig. 6: Xylotrechus smei (Lap. et Gory):
PL/PW 0.90, PB/PA 1.0, PB/EW 2.33.
Scutellum small, broad, semilunar, densely
clothed with white pubescence. Elytra weakly
narrowed at apex and truncate apically; EL/EW
8.66; prosternum produced and truncate,
metastemum plate-like, midlongitudinally with
one black sulcus, basally and apically with
transverse bands of white pubescence. Legs
moderate, femora thick, hind pair of legs
extending a little beyond abdomen, 1st joint of
hind tarsus about twice as long as the next two
joints united.
Body length: 15 mm.
Material examined: 1 male, SR, B.T.R.,
Jalpaiguri, West Bengal, 5.iv.l993; 1 male,
RB(LT), B.T.R., Jalpaiguri, West Bengal,
20. v. 1995.
Distribution: india: Assam, Orissa, West
Bengal, North, West, Central and South India
(Gahan, 1906), Bhutan; Myanmar; Sri Lanka
(Gahan, 1906; Beeson, 1961; Basak and Biswas,
1993).
. Whole body, B. Antenna, C. Hind leg
Tribe: Hesperophanini
Genus: Stromatium Serville
Stromatium Serville, 1834, Ann. Soc. Ent.
Fr.3: 80.
Type-species: Callidium barbatum Fabricius
Stromatium barbatum (Fabricius)
(Fig. 7)
Callidium barbatum Fabricius, 1775, Syst.
Ent. : 189.
Male: Red brown to a little darker; faintly
covered with orange brown pubescence, 1 st joint
of antennae brown black, rest red brown, apical
segments a little darker.
Head at base narrower than pronotum,
densely and rather coarsely punctate,
longitudinally sulcate between the antennae;
clypeus short, transversely depressed,
anteclypeus leathery; HW/PA 1.19, FA/FL 0.69;
mandible short, oblique; eyes rather deeply
emarginate, with large lower lobe, extending
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000
LONGICORN BEETLES OF B UXA TIGER RESER VE
Fig. 7: Stromatium barbatum (Fabricius): A. Whole body, B. Antenna, C. Hind leg
anteriorly almost up to the genal edge; antennal
tubercles posteriorly raised and bluntly pointed.
Antennae 1 1 -segmented, about 1/3 longer than
body, with long silky pubescence beneath, 3rd
joint longest, 4th slightly shorter than 5th.
Pronotum broader than long, subquadrate, with
numerous strong coarse punctures; the disc with
5 slightly raised, less distinct tubercles, 2 placed
anteriorly, 1 behind middle, and 2 near base,
straighter and each marked with a large
depression; PL/PA 1.0, PL/PW 0.74, PB/PA 1.0,
PB/EW 1.85. Scutellum broadly triangular, with
a midlongitudinal depression forming 2 weakly
raised lobes on either side. Elytra nearly parallel-
sided, narrowed and truncate at apex, coarsely
and very densely punctured, each with 2 distinct
dorsal and 1 lateral costae, a short sutural tooth
at apex; EL/EW 6.57; prosternum weakly sloped
at apex. Venters of meso- and metathorax
truncate, covered with pubescence, metathoracic
plate with median longitudinal black streak;
abdominal venters punctate, laterally with rather
dense pubescence, medially weakly so. Legs
moderately long, femora compressed, fore tibiae
very broad a little below the base and gradually
narrowed outwards, the middle and hind pairs
gradually widened up to the middle; the hind
pair nearly reaching elytral apex; 1st joint of
the hind tarsus subequal to 2+3, last tarsus with
distinct paronychium.
Body length: 21-23 mm.
Material examined: 1 female, RB(LT),
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LONGICORN BEETLES OF BUXA TIGER RESER VE
B.T.R., 20. v. 1995; 1 male, RM, B.T.R.,
30. v. 1996; 1 male, NL, B.T.R., 17.V.1997; 1
male, SB(LT), B.T.R., 19.V.1997. All from
Jalpaiguri, West Bengal.
Distribution: india: All over; Africa;
Bangladesh; Islands of Reunion; Rodriquiz &
Seychelles; Pakistan; Malagasy Rep.; Mauritius;
Myanmar; North America; Sri Lanka (Gahan,
1906; Beeson, 1961 Khan and Maiti, 1983);
England (Beeson, 1961).
Tribe: Oemini
Genus: Tetraommatus Perroud
Tetraommatus Perroud, 1855, Ann. Soc. Linn.
Lyon (2) ii:390.
Type-species: Tetraommatus filiformis Perroud
Tetraommatus filiformis Perroud
(Fig. 8)
Tetraommatus filiformis Perroud, 1855,
Ann. Soc. Linn. Lyon (2) h : 391.
Male: Head, pronotum reddish brown; elytra
brown; antennae yellow brown, legs yellow.
Head narrower than pronotum, narrowed
at both ends, broadest medially, flat, raised
between the antennal sockets, densely and
coarsely punctate, sparsely hairy; clypeus
transverse, band-like; HW/PA 1.40; FA/FL 0.75;
mandibles dark brown, robust, strongly curved,
apically broad and truncate; eyes large, deeply
emarginate; gula indicated, apically narrowed.
Antennae 1 1-segmented, as long as body,
segment III onwards subequal, each at least twice
of segment I, sparsely setose. Pronotum
subcylindrical, basally broad, anteriorly
narrowed, lateral margin sharply rounded
towards apex, constricted near base, transversely
sulcate striate near middle, densely and finely
punctate, sparsely setose; PL/PA 1.40, PL/PW
0.87, PB/PA 1 .53, PB/EW 1 .76. Scutellum short,
broad and obtuse. Elytra parallel-sided, sharply
curved towards apex, apically blunt, punctate-
striate, sparsely setose; EL/EW 5.70; prosternum
between fore coxae short, metasternum medially
raised, midlongitudinally with a black sulcus.
Legs moderately long, intercoxal part of
prosternum very short, front coxae contiguous.
Fig. 8: Tetraommatus filiformis Perroud: A. Whole body, B. Antenna, C. Hind leg
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000
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LONGICORN BEETLES OF B UXA TIGER RESER VE
with acetabula angulate outwardly and open
posteriorly, middle coxae almost contiguous,
femora rather long, pedunculate, apically clavate
and darker, basally curved, laterally compressed
towards apex; tibia basally dark; tarsi long and
narrow; 1st joint subequal to the following 3
joints.
Body length: 7-9 mm.
Material examined: 1 male, BG, B.T.R.,
25. v. 1995; 3 males, TG, B.T.R., 26.V.1996; 2
males, RM, B.T.R., 30. v. 1996. All from
Jalpaiguri, West Bengal.
Distribution: india: Pondicherry (Gahan,
1906; Beeson, 1961), West Bengal; Sri Lanka
(Gahan, 1906 ; Beeson, 1961).
Genus: Xystrocera Serville
Xystrocera Serville, 1834, Ann. Soc.
Ent. Fr. 3: 69.
Type-species: Xystrocera globosa (Olivier)
Xystrocera globosa (Olivier)
(Fig. 9)
Cerambyx globosa Olivier, 1795,
Entomologist, 4 (67) : 27.
Male: Reddish brown; pronotum with green
metallic bands: along the anterior and posterior
margins, midlongitudinally but narrow, and
laterally running oblique joining the fore and hind
bands; elytra testaceous yellow, with green metallic
bands: the median longitudinal extending obliquely
from base, over the shoulder almost to the tip, the
outer running from base and at apex turning along
the apical margin; head with 2 such rounded spots
on either side of the median sulcus of the vertex.
Head at base narrower than pronotum,
vertical in front, raised, forming ridges, broadly
concave from side to side, between the antennae,
densely punctate; antennal supports emarginate in
front, acutely pointed on the inner side; vertex
densely punctate, midlongitudinally sulcate.
86
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LONGICORN BEETLES OFBUXA TIGER RESER VE
continuing to the clypeus, laterally weakly
emarginate; clypeus transverse, strongly ridged,
anteclypeus membranous, postclypeus separated
from the front by a transverse groove; HW/PA
1.50; FA/FL 0.83; mandible basally straight,
apically turned at right angles, knobbed at point
of turning; eyes large, deeply emarginate, the lower
lobes extended close to the mandibular edge of the
genae. Antennae 1 1 -segmented, about 1/3 to twice
as long as the body, fust 4 joints strongly warty,
margins with blunt spines, these in distal segments
greatly reduced and finally obsolete; 1st joint
asperate at apex with spines, 3rd to 5th strongly
asperate, with the apices thickened and dentate
beneath; 3rd joint thicker and about 1/4 shorter
than the 4th. Pronotum anteromedially convex,
following the transverse depression (-s/*), otherwise
weakly depressed medially, anterolaterally
depressed on both sides, marginally rounded, base
with rounded lobe at the middle, entirely strongly
warty; PL/PA 1 .06, PL/PW 0.85, PB/PA 0.69, PB/
EW 3.41. Scute Hum tongue-shaped. Elytra long,
anteriorly broad, posteriorly narrowed, apex
rounded, densely and strongly punctate; each with
3 slightly raised longitudinal striae - 2 dorsal and
1 lateral EL/EW 19.54; prostemum with transverse
striate metallic glossy band, close to the front
margin, the rest and the sides of the lower part of
prothorax form a convexly raised, very minutely
and densely punctate dull red area; mesostemum
moderately broad, narrowed posteriorly and
truncate at tip, metastemum plate-like, with a
black median streak. Legs long, fore legs shorter;
femora fusiform-clavate, compressed, pedunculate
at base, hind femora long; tibiae compressed.
Body length: 23-26 mm.
Material examined: 2 males, RB(LT),
B.T.R., Jalpaiguri, West Bengal, 26. v. 1995.
Distribution: India: Assam, Karnataka,
Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal; Celebes;
China; Egypt; Hawaiian Islands; Indonesia; Japan;
Korea; Laos; Malaysia; Malagasy Rep.; Mauritius;
Myanmar; Philippines; Pacific Island; Taiwan;
Thailand; Sri Lanka (Gahan, 1906; Beeson, 1961;
Gressitt and Rondon, 1970; Khan and Maiti,
1983).
Tribe: Thraniini
Genus: Thranius Pascoe
Thranius Pascoe, 1859, Trans. Ent. Soc. (2) v : 22.
Type-species: Thranius gibbosus Pascoe
Thranius simplex Gahan
(Fig. 10)
Thranius simplex Gahan, 1 894, Ann. Mus.
Civ. Genov., 34 : 15.
Male : Dark brown; head, thorax, abdomen,
legs, antennae brown black; antenniferous
tubercles, pronotum, scutellum reddish brown;
clypeus anteriorly and maxillary palpi yellow.
Head narrower than pronotum, wide
transversely, strongly sloped anteriorly, frons flat,
subquadrate, midlongitudinally sulcate between the
eyes, punctate, vertex transversely depressed below
the eyes, clypeus transverse, rectangular, punctate;
HW/PA 1.28; FA/FL 0.66; eyes rather transverse,
long, weakly emarginate, with upper lobe short,
not extending behind the antenniferous tubercles,
lower lobe rather prominent inwardly. Antennae
1 1 -segmented, shorter than body, joints cylindrical,
1st joint closely and rather finely punctate, apex
rather pale. Pronotum parallel-sided, squarish,
basal margin straight, anterior margin weakly
concave, lateral margin weakly rounded, medially
a little broad, midlongitudinally sulcate, strongly
gibbose anteriorly, densely punctate; PA/PL 1.14;
PL/PW 0.80, PB/PA 1.28, PB/EW 2.25. Scutellum
small, obtuse, scantily punctured. Elytra elongate,
almost flat above, deflexed at the sides, narrowed
up to the middle, the surface densely punctate, with
the front edges of the punctures slightly raised;
EL/EW 8.37; prosternum punctate; metathoracic
plate with a median longitudinal black streak, its
episterna very broad in front, nan owed almost to
a point posteriorly. Legs moderately long, femora
clavate, with the 1st tarsal joint of hind legs a little
longer than 2+3 united.
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LONGICORN BEETLES OF B UXA TIGER RESER VE
Fig. 10: Thranius simplex Gahan: A. Whole body, B. Antenna, C. Hind leg
Body length: 12 mm.
Material examined: 1 male, SB, B.T.R.,
Jalpaiguri, West Bengal, 20.V.1997.
Distribution: india: Manipur (Gahan, 1906),
West Bengal; Bhutan; Myanmar (Gahan, 1906).
Subfamily 2: Pnoninae
Tribe: Megopidini
Genus: Megopis Serville
Megopis Serville, 1832, Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. i : 162.
Type-species: Megopis muticci Serville
Megopis (A ego soma) bowringi (Gahan)
(Fig. 11)
Aegosoma bowringi Gahan, 1894,
A.M.N.H. 14 (6): 226.
Male: Reddish brown; densely clothed
with short faint brown pubescence, elytral costae
free.
Head narrower than pronotum, elongate
behind, eyes more or less inclined in front,
densely warty and with deeply distinct
midlongitudinal black sulcus; vertex flat; frons
anteriorly sloped, posteriorly weakly concave;
clypeus transverse; HW/PA 0.87; FA/FL 0.59;
mandibles short, oblique, toothless; eyes
narrowly emarginate in front; gula short, basally
broad, anteriorly narrow, either side marked by
black ridge. Antennae shorter than body, basal
segments densely punctate, apical 3 segments
coarsely wrinkled, 1st joint short and stout. 3rd
joint longest, subequal to 4+5. Pronotum broadly
transverse, wider than long, its warty basal and
apical margins nearly straight, lateral margin
medially weakly produced, antero-lateral comers
weakly produced, rounded, strongly reflexed: PL/
PA 0.66, PL/PW 0.59, PB/PA 0^83, PB/EW 2.0.
Scutellum nearly globose, densely warty. Elytra
broader than pronotum, nearly parallel-sided for
the greater part of their length, slightly narrowed
posteriorly, rounded at apex, with sutural teeth;
EL/EW 8.09; prostemum raised, sloped, on either
side extending beyond fore coxae; mesosternum
sulcate, midlongitudinally blackish, metasternum
broad, plate-like, midlongitudinally with a deeply
distinct black sulcus; abdomen ventrally a little
paler, densely punctate, segmental joints brown-
black, transverse, band-like, clothed with pale
brown hairs. Legs moderately long, the hind pair
88
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LONGICORN BEETLES OFBUXA TIGER RESER VE
Fig. 1 1: Megopis ( Aegosoma ) bowringi (Gahan): A. Whole body, B. Antenna, C. Hind leg
longest, femora laterally compressed, with their
dorsal and ventral borders nearly parallel, tarsi
rather narrow, with the claw joint at least as long
as 1+2.
Body length: 20-23 mm.
Material examined: 1 male, RB, B.T.R.,
22. v. 1995; 1 male, SB(LT), B.T.R, 19.V.1997.
Both Jalpaiguri, West Bengal
Distribution: india: Arunachal Pradesh, West
Bengal; Bangladesh; Myanmar (Gahan, 1906).
Tribe: Macro tomini
Genus: Macrotoma Serville
Macrotoma Serville, 1832, Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr.
2: 264.
Type-species: Prionus serripes Fabricius
Macrotoma (. Zooblax ) spinosa Fabricius
(Fig. 12)
Prionus spinosus Fabricius, 1787, Mailt.
Ins. 1 : 130.
Male: Red brown, elytra rusty brown
towards base and yellowish towards apex,
antennae with three basal segments brown-black,
legs reddish, venter glossy red.
Head elongate behind eyes, coarsely
punctate between eyes, closely and finely
granulate behind, vertex impressed with a
median groove; frons punctate, midlongi-
tudinally sulcate due to bulging antennal
tubercles, anteriorly vertical and truncate;
clypeus depressed, limited above by an
impression, weakly punctate; shorter than width
of pronotum; HW/PA 0.61; FA/FL 0.76;
mandibles vertical, straight at base, incurved at
tip, each with 2 teeth on inner edge, punctate;
eyes not deeply emarginate on front; venter warty.
Antennae 1 1 -segmented, reaching basal 2/3 of
elytra, 1st joint apically broad, basally
pedunculate, twice as long as broad, closely and
coarsely punctate, 3rd segment more than twice
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
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LONGICORN BEETLES OF BUXA TIGER RESERVE
Fig. 12: Macrotoma ( Zooblax ) spinosa (Fabricius): A. Whole body, B. Antenna, C. Hind leg
as long as 1 st, 4th onwards shorter, 1 1 th much
longer, spinose beneath and along the front
margin, the spines rather short, 4th weakly
spinose. Pronotum rather strongly de flexed at
sides just before the middle, very closely and
finely punctate and opaque, with 2 triangular
spaces before the middle, a small spot external
to each of these, a narrow transverse band near
base, a median streak from the middle and an
oblique band from each end of the basal band,
all more or less strongly lustrous, lateral edges
armed with a series of short spines and teeth,
basally broad, apically narrowed; PL/PA 0.80,
PL/PW 0.53, PB/PA 1.50, PB/EW 2.14.
Scutellum long, tongue-shaped. Elytra much
longer than broad, rounded at apex, usually
dentate at suture, rugulose-punctate and very
finely granulose, the granules more distinct and
the surface rough towards base, especially on the
slightly elevated part near scutellum, each with
4 longitudinal striae; EL/EW 6.00; prostemum
sloped on either side, mesosternum at apex
slightly clubbed, metasternum plate-like,
medially sulcate with a longitudinal black streak.
Legs long, spinose beneath; fore femora and
tibiae asperate with short sharp spines beneath,
those on mid and hind legs reduced and punctate;
middle and hind femora sparsely punctate, armed
with a few spines beneath, 1 st joint of front tarsus
a little shorter than 2+3.
90
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L ONGICORN BEETLES OF B UXA TIGER RESER VE
Body length: 56 mm.
Material examined: 1 male, JY(LT),
B.T.R., Jalpaiguri, West Bengal, 25.V.1996.
Distribution: india: Bihar, Karnataka
(Gahan, 1906), West Bengal; Arabia; Laos; Sri
Lanka; (Gahan, 1906; Gressitt and Rondon, 1970).
R E F E
Basak, P.K. & S. Biswas (1993): Insecta: Coleoptera:
Cerambycidae. Zool. Surv. India: State Fauna Series,
1 : Fauna of Orissa, (Part 4): 185-195.
Beeson, C.F.C. (1961): The Ecology and Control of Forest
Insects of India and the Neighbouring Countries. Govt,
of India Publication, Delhi, pp. 767 (Reprint).
Gahan, C.J. (1906): Fauna of British India. Coleoptera.
Vol. 1 (Cerambycidae), Taylor and Francis, London,
pp. 329.
Ghosh, A.K. & T. Sengupta ( 1 982): Handbook on Insect
Collection, Preservation and Study (Ed. Director),
Zool. Surv. India, Calcutta, pp. 64.
Acknowledgements
We thank the authorities of Buxa Tiger
Reserve for facilities and the Head of the
Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta
for kind permission to carry out the work.
E N C E S
Gressitt, J.L. & J. A. Rondon (1970): Cerambycidsof Laos
(Disteniidae. Prioninae, Philinae, Aseminae.
Lepturinae, Cerambycinae). Pacific Insects
Monograph, 24: 1-314
Khan, T.N. & P.K. Maiti (1983): Studies on the
biotaxonomy, biology and ecology of some longicom
beetle borers (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) of the islands
of Andaman, India. Rec. zool. Surv. India. Misc. Pubi.
Occ. Paper, No. 45, 1-100.
Raychaudhuri, D. (1996); Longhorn beetles
(Cerambycidae : Coleoptera) of Buxa Tiger Reserve,
Jalpaiguri, West Bengal. Insect Environment 2(3): 81 .
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
91
FISHES OF THE CYPRINID GENUS SEMIPLOTUS BLEEKER 1859, WITH
DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES FROM MANIPUR, INDIA1
Waikhom Vishwanath and Laishram Kosygin2
{With one text-figure and one plate)
Key words: Cyprinid fish, Semiplotus, new species, Manipur
The cyprinid fishes of the genus Semiplotus Bleeker are distributed in northern India, Myanmar
and Nepal. Four species (including a new one) of the genus are recognised. They are: S. semiplotus
(McClelland), S. modestus Day, S. cirrhosus Chaudhuri and S. manipurensis sp. nov. This paper
describes the new species from the rivers and streams draining Ukhrul dist. of Manipur (Chindwin
drainage), India. Semiplotus manipurensis differs from S. semiplotus and S. cirrhosus in having
a broader body, fewer branched dorsal rays and several horny tubercles scattered randomly on the
snout. It differs from S. modestus in having a broader body and an unserrated last dorsal spine.
Semiplotus cirrhosus is considered a valid species. A key to identification of species of the genus
Semiplotus is provided.
Introduction
Bleeker (1859) established the genus
Semiplotus to accommodate Cy prinus semiplotus
McClelland, 1839 (type locality: River
Brahmaputra, Assam). Day (1870) described
another species, S. modestus from Akyab in
Myanmar and distinguished it from S. semiplotus
by the serrated last dorsal spine. Later, Chaudhuri
(1919) described S. cirrhosus based on a single
specimen collected from Putao of Myanmar, and
distinguished it from the former two species
mainly by the presence of two pairs of maxillary
barbels and absence of knob at the symphysis of
the lower jaw. However, Hora (1973) treated
S. cirrhosus as a synonym of S. semiplotus. Jayaram
(1981) included only S. semiplotus and S. modestus
in the genus. The distribution of the genus is
restricted to the Himalayan foothills of Nepal, north
and northeast India and Myanmar (Fig. 1).
On the basis of its jaw anatomy, Howes
(1982) put Semiplotus under the genus Cyprinion
Heckel, 1843. Talwar and Jhingran (1991)
recognised Semiplotus as a subgenus of
Cyprinion without justification. However,
Banarescu and Herzig (1995) recognised
Semiplotus as a distinct genus, as it has more
'Accepted January, 1999
department of Life Sciences, Manipur University,
Canchipur 795 003, Manipur, India.
branched dorsal fin rays.
No detailed revisional work on this genus
has been conducted, and very little is known
about the fishes of this genus. This is partly due
to the difficulty in obtaining specimens. A brief
revision of the genus Semiplotus is made here.
Material and Methods
The new species was collected by cast net.
Type specimens are deposited in the Manipur
University Museum of Fishes (M-UMF) and
National Science Museum, Tokyo (NSMT). Type
and other specimens of S. cirrhosus, S. modestus
and S. semiplotus in Zoological Survey of India,
Calcutta were re-examined. Measurements and
counts follow Jayaram (1981). Body proportions
are expressed as percentage of standard length
(SL) and head length (HL). Total number of
vertebrae was counted from radiographs and
dissected specimens. Transverse scales were
counted as scales between lateral line and dorsal
fin origin (including mid-dorsal scale)/lateral
line scale/ scales between lateral line and pelvic
fin origin.
Semiplotus Bleeker. 1 859
Semiplotus Bleeker, 1859, Nat. Tijdschr.
Neder. -Indie. 20: 424 (type species Cyprinus
semiplotus McClelland, 1839); Banarescu &
92
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NEW AND KNOWN FISHES OF THE CYPRINID GENUS SEMI P LOTUS
Fig. 1: Drainages of Nepal, northern and eastern parts of India and Myanmar
showing the distribution of known species of Semiplotus.
Herzig-Straschil, 1995, Ann. Naturhist. Mus.
Wien., 97 B: 411 (status discussed).
Diagnosis: A genus of Cyprinidae with the
following combination of characters: body large
and deep (depth 35.4-41.3% SL); head short, as
long as high at occiput (height 93.3-1 16.1% HL);
snout broad, blunt with open pores or tubercles;
mouth inferior, wide (width 45.3-65.2% HL) with
exposed cornified mandibular cutting edge;
dentary with a broad deflected labial surface;
maxillary barbel rudimentary; long dorsal fin
with 20-25 branched rays; anal fin with 7-9
branched rays; lateral line scales 27-36; lower
jaw with a knob at symphysis.
Distribution: india, Ganga-Brahmaputra,
Kaladan and Chindwin drainages, Nepal and
Myanmar.
Remarks: Banarescu and Herzig (1995)
differentiated Semiplotus from Cyprinion on the
basis of (i) more branched dorsal fin rays (20-25
vs. 9-17), (ii) fewer branched anal fin rays (5 vs.
7) and (iii) no barbels. The first character holds
true. However, the characters (ii) and (iii) differ
from our observations. All the Semiplotus
specimens studied by us have a pair of small
maxillary barbels and 7-9 branched anal fin l ays.
From the literature it is also observed that
Semiplotus has more pelvic rays (8-9 vs. 7), fewer
scales on lateral line (27-36 vs. 33-45), and a
deeper body than Cyprinion.
Key to the species of
genus Semiplotus Bleeker
la Last simple dorsal ray serrated posteriorly;
branched dorsal rays 20-21 S. modestus
1 b Last simple dorsal ray not serrated posteriorly;
branched dorsal rays 20-25 2
2a Tubercles on snout randomly distributed on
each side of tip of snout; branched dorsal rays
20-23 S. mcinipurensis
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NEW AND KNOWN FISHES OF THE CYPRINID GENUS SEM IPLOTUS
2b Tubercles/open pores on snout arranged in a
transverse row; branched dorsal rays 23-25 ...
3
3a Open pores on snout 4; lateral transverse scales
7/1/4 S. cirrhosus
3b Open pores on snout 10-12; lateral transverse
scales 6/1/4 S. semip lotus
Semiplotus cirrhosus Chaudhuri, 1919
Semiplotus cirrhosus Chaudhuri, 1919,
Rec. Indian Mus. 16(4): 280 pi. 22 figs 3, 3a
(type locality: Putao plains, Burma); Hora, 1973,
Rec. Indian Mus., 39(1): 46 (part).
Material examined: ZSI F 9747/1
holotype, 41.0 mm SL, Myanmar: Putao plains
near Tibetan frontier, coll. Murray Stuart,
? . ii . 1 9 1 8
Diagnosis: A species of Semiplotus with
large eye (diameter 36.2% HL); predorsal length
47.6% SL; a row of 4 open pores (2 on each side)
on the snout; the last simple dorsal fin ray not
serrated; 25 branched dorsal fin rays; 8 branched
pelvic fin rays; 9 branched anal fin rays; a small
knob at the symphysis of lower jaw.
Description: Dorsal rays iii, 25; pectoral
rays 15; pelvic rays i, 8; anal rays ii, 9; lateral
line scales 33; scales above lateral line to origin
of dorsal fin 7; scales below lateral line to origin
of pelvic fin 4; predorsal scales 13.
Head and body laterally compressed. Snout
broad, obtuse, with a row of 4 open pores (2 on
each side). Maxillary barbels well developed,
extending to below anterior margin of orbit. Eye
large, almost in the middle of head. Caudal
peduncle deep. Dorsal fin origin slightly nearer
snout tip than caudal fin base. Last simple dorsal
ray not serrated. Pectoral fin almost reaching
pelvic fin origin. Caudal fin forked.
Colour: Head and body silvery with black
dorsal surface. Ventral surface dull white.
Distribution: Myanmar: Putao plains
(Irrawady drainage).
Remarks: Chaudhuri (1919) described
S. cirrhosus and differentiated it from other
Semiplotus by the presence of two small
maxillary barbels and the absence of a knob at
the symphysis of the lower jaw. Hora (1937)
treated S. cirrhosus as a synonym of S. semiplotus
after he found that all other specimens of the
genus in ZSI possessed small maxillary barbels.
It has not been possible to examine more
specimens from Myanmar. However, the holotype
of S. cirrhosus in ZSI (F9747/1) has been
examined. The species differs from S. semiplotus
as it has fewer pores on the snout [4 (2 on each
side) vs. 10-12 (5-6 on each side)]; a longer head
(length 26.9% SL vs. 21.9-23.7); larger eye
(diameter 36.2% HL vs. 20.8-30.0); longer
predorsal length (47.6% SL vs. 39.5-44.2); one
more scale row between dorsal fin origin and
lateral line (7 vs. 6) and fewer branched pelvic
fin rays (8 vs. 9). The anal fin of the holotype is
damaged. But Chaudhuri (1919) reported that it
had two simple and nine branched rays. Thus, it
also differs from 5. semiplotus as it has more
branched anal rays (9 vs. 7). Thus S. cirrhosus
is treated here as a separate species.
Semiplotus manipurensis sp. nov.
(Plate 1 Figs. 1, 2a)
Material examined: Holotype: MUMF
2049, 83.5 mm SL, India: Chall ou river at
Thetsi, near Jessami, Manipur (Chindwin basin),
94° 35’ E, 25° 38’ N, about 1,270 m above msl,
coll. L. Kosygin, 2.vi.l994.
Paratypes: NSMT-P 52636. 1 ex., 85.0 mm
SL, same data as holotype; MUMF 2011, 2045-
2048,2051-2055,2145,2146, 12 ex., 55.3-126.0
mm SL, same data as holotype; MUMF 2236-
2240, 5 ex., 42.9-57.5 mm SL, India: Chall ou
river, Chingai, Manipur, 94° 3 V E, 25° 18’ N,
130 km northeast of Imphal, 30.iv.1995; MUMF
2250, 2251, 2 ex., 53.3-185.0 mm SL, India:
Wanze stream, Khamsom, Manipur, (Chindwin
basin), 116 km northeast of Imphal. 94° 32’ E,
25° 12’ N, coll. L. Kosygin. 7.vii.l995.
Diagnosis: A species of Semiplotus with a
broad body (width 17.3-22.1% SL); last dorsal
spine not serrated; 20-23 branched dorsal fin
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NEW AND KNOWN FISHES OF THE CYPRINID GENUS SEMIPLOTUS
Vishwanath, Waikhom et al: Semiplotus manipurensis sp. nov.
Plate 1
Fig. 1 : Semiplotus manipurensis sp. nov (holotype, MUMF- 2049, 83.5 mm SL).
Scale bar indicates 10 mm
a b
Fig. 2: Front view of snout showing arrangement of tubercles/open pores:
a. S. manipurensis (MUMF-2251, 185.0 mm SL); b. S. semiplotus (ZSIF-2662/2, 181.0 mm SL)
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 1999
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NEW AND KNOWN FISHES OF THE CYPRINID GENUS SEM I PL OTUS
rays; 9 branched pelvic fin rays; 12-13 predorsal
scales; dorsal fin base length 34.0-39.7% SL; 32-
36 lateral line scales; 7 scale rows between dorsal
fin origin and the lateral line; many horny
tubercles distributed randomly on each side of
snout tip, extending posteriorly to the region
below the anterior margin of orbit.
Description: Dorsal rays iv, 20-23 (last ray
branched at base); pectoral rays 15-16; pelvic
fin rays i, 9; anal fin rays ii-iii, 7-8 (last ray
branched at base); principal caudal fin rays 10 +
9; lateral line scales 32-36; scales above lateral
line to origin of dorsal fin 7; scales below lateral
line to origin of pelvic fin 4; predorsal scales 12-
13; total vertebrae 36.
Body short, deep and compressed. Dorsal
profile arched from tip of snout to dorsal fin
origin and then gently sloping down to caudal
fin base. Dorsal profile more convex than ventral.
Abdomen edge rounded. Head short and small
compared to body depth, almost as long as high
at occiput. Snout thick, prominent, broad, obtuse,
overhanging the mouth. Snout with horny
tubercles distributed randomly on each side,
extending to the region below the anterior margin
of orbit. Tubercles larger and more prominent
towards tip of snout, smaller and less prominent
posteriorly. Tubercles not well developed in small
specimens (<56.0 mm SL). Number and size of
tubercles increasing with total length. Eye large,
not visible from below, placed almost in middle
of head. Nostrils close to each other, closer to
eye than to tip of snout. Mouth wide, transverse,
inferior, lower jaw with a knob at symphysis, and
an exposed cornified cutting edge. Small
maxillary pair of barbels, more prominent in
smaller specimens, hardly visible in larger
specimens as they are concealed in groove
between maxilla and snout. Scales moderate to
large, those on chest and abdomen smaller
than those of other parts of body. Lateral line
complete.
Dorsal fin origin nearer to snout tip than
to caudal fin base, extending from a little ahead
of pelvic fin to above anal fin base. Last simple
dorsal ray strong, osseous and not serrated in
large specimens. In small specimens (<130 mm
SL), distal third of spine slightly serrated
posteriorly. Height of dorsal almost equal to head
length. Pectoral fin shorter than head, not
reaching pelvic fin origin, latter not reaching anal
fin origin. Caudal fin deeply forked with a
slightly longer upper lobe.
Colour: Body silvery white, slaty grey
dorsally. All fins tinged orange with dusky edges.
Distribution: india: Chall ou river and
Wanze stream (Chindwin drainage), Ukhrul
District, Manipur.
Etymology: The species is named after the
state of Manipur.
Habitat: Moderate to fast flowing hill
streams with rocky beds. Smaller specimens
inhabit shallow and fast flowing water, while
larger ones inhabit deeper waters where water
current is comparatively slow.
Remarks: Semiplotus manipurensis differs
from S. semiplotus in its wider body (width at
dorsal fin origin 17.3-22.1% SL vs. 1 1.8-16.7),
fewer branched dorsal fin rays (20-23 vs. 23-25)
and randomly distributed tubercles on either side
of the tip of snout vs. a transverse row of open
pores on the snout including its tip [all the
specimens of S. semiplotus in ZS1 and the freshly
collected specimen (MUMF 2307) from the
Brahmaputra river at Dibrugarh, Assam have
open pores on snout, while the 2 1 specimens of
S. manipurensis have tubercles on snout]; shorter
dorsal fin base (34.0-39.7% SL vs. 40.9-44.6);
more scales in lateral line (32-36 vs. 27-33) and
one more scale row between the origin of dorsal
fin and lateral line (7 vs. 6).
The new species is also distinct from
S. cirrhosus as it has a wider head (63.3-74.2%
HL vs. 58.8); wider body (width at dorsal fin
origin 17.3-22.1% SL vs. 11.1); fewer branched
dorsal rays (20-23 vs. 25); smaller eye (diameter
20.0-31.8% HL vs. 36.2); shorter predorsal
length (40.8-45.7% SL vs. 47.6); one more
branched pelvic fin ray (9 vs. 8): fewer branched
anal fin rays (7-8 vs. 9) and many randomly
in
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000
NEW AND KNOWN FISHES OF THE C.YPRINID GENUS SEM IPLOTUS
distributed tubercles on snout (vs. a transverse
row of 4 open pores across the snout).
Semiplotus manipurensis is distinct from
S. modestus as it has fewer predorsal scales (12-
13 vs. 14-15); broader body (width at dorsal fin
origin 17.3-22.1% SL vs. 9.9%); more branched
pelvic rays (9 vs. 8) and last dorsal spine not
serrated posteriorly (vs. serrated).
Semiplotus modestus Day, 1870
Semiplotus modestus Day, 1870, Proc.
Zool. Soc. Lond.: 101 (type locality: Akyab,
Burma); Barman, 1988, J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 85(1): 210 (Koladyne R., Mizoram).
Cyprinion modestum : Howes, 1982, Bull.
Brit. Mus. nat. Hist. (Zool), 42(4): 331 (status
discussed).
Material examined: ZSI 2343, 1 ex.,
(syntype), 85.4 mm SL, Myanmar: hill ranges
near Akyab, coll. F. Day, no date.
Diagnosis: A species of Semiplotus with
last dorsal spine osseous and serrated posteriorly;
20-2 1 branched dorsal fin rays; 8 branched pelvic
fin rays; 14-15 predorsal scales; 32-34 lateral line
scales; and several open pores on either side of
snout.
Description: Dorsal fin rays iv, 20-21;
pectoral fin rays 15; pelvic fin rays i, 8; anal fin
rays iii, 7; principal caudal fin rays 10 + 9; lateral
line scales 32-34; scales above lateral line to
origin of dorsal fin 7; scales below lateral line to
origin of pelvic fin 4; predorsal scales 14-15.
Body deep, laterally compressed. Head
short with concave dorsal profile, as long as high
at occiput. Snout short, obtuse, overhanging the
mouth with several open pores on either side.
Maxilla extending below the middle of orbit. Eye
large, longer than snout. Dorsal fin origin nearer
snout tip than caudal base. Last simple dorsal
ray serrated posteriorly. Pectoral fin extends to
pelvic fin origin, latter to anal fin. Caudal fin
forked, lower lobe slightly longer than upper.
Colour: Silvery grey with black dorsal
surface. Pelvic and anal fins orange.
Distribution: india: Kaladan river
(Koladyne river as per Barman, 1 988), Mizoram;
Myanmar: Akyab.
Remarks: The species is quite distinct
from other members of the genus Semiplotus as
it has a posteriorly serrated last dorsal spine.
Semiplotus semiplotus (McClelland, 1839)
(Plate 1 Fig. 2b)
Cyprinus semiplotus McClelland, 1839,
Asiatic Researchers, 19(2): 274, 346, pi. 37 fig.
2 (type locality: River Brahmaputra, upper
Assam, India).
Semiplotus mcclellandi: Day, 1878, Fishes
of India: 550 (description).
Semiplotus semiplotus: Hora, 1937, Rec.
Indian Mus., 39:45 (part).
Cyprinion semiplotum: Howes, 1982, Bull.
Brit. Mus. nat. Hist. (Zool), 42(4): 331, figs la-
c (Jaw structure studied, status discussed).
Material examined: MUMF 2307, 1 ex.,
131.4 mm SL, India: Brahmaputra river,
Dibrugarh, Assam, coll. L. Kosygin, 22.x. 1995;
ZSI F 2861/2 1 ex., 162.0 mm SL, India:
Darjeeling Himalayas, coll. G.E. Shaw & E.O.
Shebbeare, 28.iii.1937 ZSI F 2662/2, 3 exs. 89.7-
181.0 mm SL, India: Tista drainage, S.L. Hora,
?.xi.l938.
Diagnosis: A species of Semiplotus with
last simple dorsal fin ray not serrated; 23-25
branched dorsal fin rays; a transverse row of 10-
12 open pores (5-6 on each side) across the snout
posteriorly directed toward middle of orbit.
Description: Dorsal fin rays iv, 23-25;
pectoral fin rays 15-16; pelvic fin rays i, 9; anal
fin rays ii, 7 (last ray branched at base); principal
caudal fin rays 10 + 9; lateral line scales 27-33;
scales above lateral line to origin of dorsal fin 6;
scales below lateral line to origin of pelvic fin 4;
predorsal scales 11-12.
Head and body deep, laterally compressed,
with convex dorsal profile. Snout blunt with a
very distinctive transverse row of 10-12 (5-6 on
each side) open pores across it. Posteriorly open
98
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1) APR. 2000
NEW AND KNOWN FISHES OF THE CYPR/NID GENUS SEMIPLOTUS
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JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1 ) APR. 2000
NEW AND KNOWN FISHES OF THE CYPRINID GENUS SEMIPLOTUS
pores directed towards middle of orbit. Eye
moderate, almost in middle of head. Mouth wide,
inferior, lower jaw with a horny layer. Barbels a
small maxillary pair, more prominent in smaller
specimens. Dorsal fin high, with long base. Last
dorsal simple ray strong, osseous, not serrated
in large specimens but slightly serrated in distal
half in juveniles. Pectoral fin equal to head,
almost reaching pelvic fin origin. Pelvic fin
shorter than pectoral, not reaching anal fin.
Caudal fin forked.
Colour: Dull silvery with black dorsal
surface. Pectoral, pelvic and anal fins orange.
Distribution: india: Arunachal Pradesh,
Assam (Brahmaputra drainage), north Bengal;
Nepal: Terai (Ganga drainage).
Remarks: According to Day (1878), the
species is often termed Rajah-mas (King fish)
in upper Assam, as it was asserted that when
captured it had to be taken to the Rajahs for their
own consumption. He also remarked on the
statement of McClelland that the fish attained
at least two feet in length and was reckoned the
most delicious in Assam. Menon (1989)
included S. semiplotus in the list of endangered
freshwater fishes of India. The underutilised hill
stream fishes of Nepal were listed by Shreshtha
(1997), who included this species, and suggested
the possibility of developing recreational fishery
of these fishes in Nepal.
Discussion
Most workers (Bleeker, 1859; Gunther,
1868; Day, 1878; Jayaram, 1981; Barman, 1988)
erroneously considered that Semiplotus lacks
barbels. However, Hora (1937) examined all the
specimens of Semiplotus in ZSI and a specimen
from Nepal collected by Col. Bailey, and
concluded that the presence of small maxillary
barbels is a constant feature of the genus. He
further remarked that in young specimens
barbels are longer and project outside the groove,
whereas in half-grown and adult specimens they
are more or less concealed, though it is not very
difficult to make them out. This statement of
Hora {op. cit) holds true for the present study,
as all the specimens of Semiplotus examined
(including the type specimens of S.
manipurensis ) have a small pair of maxillary
barbels. Thus the presence of a small pair of
maxillary barbels is a distinct character of the
genus Semiplotus.
Interesting observations have been made
in the ichthyogeography of Semiplotus species
which are endemic in Southeast Asia.
McClelland (1839) originally described
S. semiplotus from the Brahmaputra river, upper
Assam. Day (1878) put the fish under
S. mcclellandi and reported that it inhabited
the rivers of Assam, especially in the upper
portion but was also found as low as Goalpara
and in Myanmar. Gunther (1868) on the other
hand mentioned only Assam as the place of its
distribution. Mukerji (1933) included this
species in the list of fishes of Mali Hka river,
upper Myanmar without giving a systematic
account. As there is no specimen of the fish
collected by either F. Day or D.D. Mukerji in
ZSI (although they are supposed to be there), it
is difficult to establish the correct identity of
the species and its distribution in Myanmar. Hora
(1937) reported this fish from the Nepal terai
which is drained by tributaries of the Ganga.
Thus, S. semiplotus is perhaps present only in
the Ganga-Brahmaputra drainage. On the other
hand S. cirrhosus and S. manipurensis share the
Clnndwin-Irrawaddy drainage, which is entirely
separate from the Brahmaputra drainage
(Chaudhuri, 1919). Further, distribution of
S. modestus is totally isolated from other
species of the genus. The species is distributed
in Akyab of Myanmar and parts of Mizoram
(India) which are drained by the Kaladan
drainage which enters the Bay of Bengal directly.
Kaladan drainage is separated from the Barak-
Brahmaputra drainage of India by the
Chittagong hill tract. The region is also
separated from the Chindwin-Irrawaddy
drainage of Myanmar by the north-south
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000
101
NEW AND KNOWN FISHES OF THE CYPRINID CMOS'S EM IP LOTUS
extension of the Arakan Yoma hill range. From
the above statements it is clear that Semiplotus
is distributed in north India, Myanmar and
Nepal, with restricted distribution in different
drainages. A detailed study of the geological
history of the region may give a true picture of
the phylogeny of these fishes.
Refer
Banarescu, P.M. & B. Herzig-Straschjl(1995): A revision
of the species of the Cyprinion mcicrostomus - group
(Pisces: Cyprinidae). Ann. Naturhist. Mus. Wien.
97 B 41 1-420.
Barman, R.P. (1988): First record of the King-fish,
Semiplotus modestus Day, 1870 (Pisces:
Cyprinidae) from India. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
85(1): 210.
Bleeker, P. (1859): Conspectus systematics cyprinorum.
Nat. Tijdschr. Neder. -Indie, 20: 421-441 .
Chaudhuri, B.L. (1919): Report on a small collection offish
from Putao (Hkamti Long) on the northern frontier
of Burma. Rec. Indian Mus., 16(4): 271-282.
Day, F. ( 1 870): The fishes of India; being a natural history
of the fishes known to inhabit the seas and
freshwaters of India, Burma and Ceylon, William
Dowson and Co., London, pp. 778.
Gunther, A. (1 868): Catalogue of the fishes in the British
Museum, John Edward Gray, London, 7, pp 512.
Heckel, J.J. (1843): Abbildungen and Beschreibungen der
Fische Syriens. In: Russegger, J. Reisen in Europa,
Asien und Afrika Bd. 1, T. 2. Stuttgart,
Schweizerbart’sche Verlags-buchhandlung. 991 -
1099.
Hora, S.L. (1937): On a collection of fish from Nepal.
Rec. Indian Mus. 39(1): 43-46.
Howes, G.J. ( 1 982): Anatomy and evolution of the jaws in
the semiplotine carps with a review of the genus
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr. J.R.B. Alfred, Director, ZSI
and Mr. T.K. Sen, Head, Fish Section, ZSI, for
their help in examining types of Semiplotus. We
also thank Dr. Keiichi Matsuura, Chief Curator,
National Science Museum, Tokyo, for his help
in registering a type of the new species.
NCES
Cyprinion Heckel, 1843 (Teleostei: Cyprinidae).
Bull. Brit. Mus. nat. Hist. (Zool), 42(4): 299-335.
Jayaram, K.C. (1981): Freshwater fishes of India,
Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka — a
handbook. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.
475 pp.
Kottelat, M. (1989): Zoogeography of the fishes from
Indo-Chinese inland waters with an annotated
checklist. Bull. Zoologisch Museum. Univ.
Amsterdam. 12(1): 1-56.
Menon, A.G.K. (1989): Conservation of the ichthyofauna
of India. In: Jhingran A.G. and V. V. Sugunan, (Eds).
Conservation and management of Inland capture
fisheries resources of India. Inland Fisheries Society
of India, Barrackpore: 25-33.
McClelland, J. (1839): Indian Cyprinidae. Asiatic
Researches, 19(2): 274, 346.
Mukerji, D.D. (1933): Report on Burmese fishes collected
by Lt.-Col. R.W. Burton from the tributary streams
of the Mali Haka River of the Myitkyina district
(upper Burma). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36(4):
812-831.
Shreshtha, T.K. (1997): Sustained development of fisheries
resources of Himalayan waters of Nepal. J.
Freshwater Biol. 9(1): 47-56.
Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland Fishes of
India and adjacent countries, /, Oxford and IBH
Publ. Co. Pvt Ltd., New Delhi, 541 pp.
102
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1) APR. 2000
FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF INDIAN BARBETS, MEGALAIMA SPP.1
Hafiz SA. Yahya2
( With three text-figures)
Key words: Barbets, congeneric, sympatric, food, feeding method, ecological isolation,
coexistence, conservation.
A comparative study on the ecology and biology of Indian barbets ( Megalaima spp.) was carried
out between 1 977 and 1 980 in different parts of the country. Megalaima viridis and M. rubricapilla
malabarica were studied more intensively at Thekkady (Kerala), while M. virens, M. zeylanica,
M. lineata, M. asiatica, M. franklinii and M. haemacephala were studied at other places. The
findings on the feeding behaviour of the barbets are discussed in this paper. Data on food items,
fruiting seasons, abundance of fruiting trees, feeding method and extent of ecological isolation in
food habits of coexisting species are discussed. The barbets are predominantly frugivorous, but
during the breeding season all species feed their young with insects. Among the congeneric
sympatric M. viridis and M. rubricapilla at Thekkady, the former was found to be more
insectivorous, helping considerably in checking the deadly teak defoliator Hyblaea puera. Contrary
to reports of M. zeylanica and M. viridis being minor pests on coffee, they were found to be quite
helpful to coffee plants in picking up the coffee stem borer, Xylotrechus quadripes. Barbets also
help in seed dispersal and pollination of scores of trees, and thus play an important role in
maintaining the rich biodiversity of the country, and they deserve conservation priorities.
Introduction
The name barbet is derived from the
French Barbu (=bearded) which is suggested by
the presence of nasal and rictal bristles. They
are closely related to Old World honeyguides
(Indicatoridae) and the New World puff birds
(Bucconidae). The barbet family Capitonidae has
a pantropical distribution. Ripley (1961) reported
10 species from the Indian subcontinent under
the single genus Megalaima.
According to Simmons (1970), food supply
plays an important role in determining the
breeding biology, dispersion pattern and social
system of a species through natural selection. In
this paper, apart from mentioning the main food
items, fruiting seasons and abundance of fruiting
'Accepted June, 1 999
^Centre of Wildlife & Ornithology,
Aligarh Muslim University,
Aligarh 202 002, Uttar Pradesh, India.
trees at Thekkady, the food and feeding methods
of coexisting M. viridis and M. rubricapilla are
described to ascertain the extent of isolation in
food habits. Food habits of M. zeylanica and M.
haemacephala are also discussed briefly. The
impact of food habits of M. viridis on coffee
plantations was assessed and has been published
elsewhere (Yahya 1982). Barbets do not drink
water regularly, but they were often recorded
drinking water and bathing from the rain filled
natural tree holes. Drinking and bathing behaviour
have been described elsewhere (Yahya 1991).
The study was carried out mainly in the
Periyar Tiger Reserve (9° 30' N lat. and 77° 10' E
long.) Kerala, consisting of evergreen, semi-
evergreen, shola, moist-deciduous and savanna
forests. Details of the study area have been
published earlier (Ali 1935, Yahya 1980, 1988,
1989, Vijayan 1984, and Robertson and Jackson
1992). Comparative studies were made at several
other locations.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
103
FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF INDIAN BARBETS
On reconnaissance, it was found that moist
deciduous forest was favoured most by the barbets
(Yahya 1989). Therefore, Thekkady - a small
area of moist deciduous forest, 3 km in length
and an average of 0.5 km wide, was selected for
intensive study. A road of about 4 km passes
through the middle of the forest connecting the
reserve to the nearby town Kumily. There are
several buildings in this area, besides a picnic
spot and a caravan park.
Methods
Barbets were observed in their natural
condition for about three years to study various
aspects of their ecology and biology. Data was
collected on food and feeding habits between
April 1978 and April 1979.
Each day was divided into three 4-hour
shifts; 0600 to 1000 hrs, 1000 to 1400 hrs and
1400 to 1800 hrs. Observations were made on
alternate shifts. On two days in each month, barbets
were followed for the whole day. Fruiting of trees
was recorded each month by trekking through
different routes in the study area at least every fifth
day.
The data collected included food items,
heights at which the birds fed, number of birds
feeding at that time and any antagonistic
behaviour. Barbets are mostly arboreal birds and
only on five occasions did I note M. viridis
searching for food on the ground. Hence, the
vertical height distribution of feeding zone was
divided into three broad levels: Primary level 1
to 4 m. Secondary level 4 to 8 m and Tertiary
level above 8 m. In the beginning, I tried to
distinguish different canopies at which the birds
fed, but this was not done later as both species
were found exploiting the canopy equally.
The total numbers of each species of barbet
recorded feeding on different fruiting trees and
hunting insects were considered during the final
analysis. As barbets hunt in the brighter hours of
the day and in exposed areas, it was possible to
identify such prey as cicadas, leafhoppers, ants,
termites, butterflies, spiders, beetles and
caterpillars. But barbets were seen to be primarily
frugivores, and easy to observe visually, therefore
no specimen was collected for stomach analysis.
The data gathered from April 1978 to April 1979
are analysed here. During this period, a total of
3,346 M. viridis and 1,889 M. l'ubricapilla were
recorded feeding.
Fruiting season and relative abundance of
FRUIT TREES IN THE INTENSIVE STUDY AREA
Fruiting/flowering seasons of the principal
trees/shrubs on which barbets were found
feeding/sipping and relative abundance of
fruiting trees in the intensive study area are
shown in Tables 1 and 2 respectively.
Table 1
RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF DIFFERENT SPECIES OF
FRUITING/FLOWERING TREES VISITED BY
BARBETS FOR FOOD IN THE STUDY AREA
(3 km x Vi km)
Plant species
Relative abundance
<5 5 to 10 10 to 15
>15
Actinodaphne hookeri
X
Bischofw javanica
X
Bridelia retusa
X
Bombax ceiba
X
Careya arborea
X
Erythrina sp.
X
Eucalyptus sp.
X
Evodea lunuankenda
X
Ficus gibbosa
X
F. infectoria
X
F. insignis
X
F. mysorensis
X
F. retusa
X
F. tsiela
X
Grewia tiliaefolia
X
Lantana camara
X
Leea indica
X
Machilus macrantha
X
Macaranga sp.
X
Olea dioica
X
Santalum album
X
Scolopia crenata
X
Solanum indicum
X
Spathodea campanulata
X
Syzygium cumin i
X
Ziziphus sp.
X
104
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000
FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF INDIAN BARBETS
Table 2
FRUITING/FLOWERING SEASONS* OF PRINCIPAL TREES AND SHRUBS ON WHICH BARBETS FEED
Plant species
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Oct
Nov
Dec
Actinodaphne hookeri
X
X
X
X
Bischofia javanica
X
X
Bridelia retusa
X
X
X
Bombax ceiba
X
X
X
X
X
Careya arborea
X
X
Erythrina sp.
X
X
X
X
X
Eucalyptus sp.
X
X
X
X
Evodea lunuankenda
X
X
X
Ficus gibbosa
X
X
X
X
X
X
F. infectoria
X
X
X
F. insignis
X
X
X
F. mysorensis
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
F. retusa
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
F. tsiela
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Grewia tiliaefolia
X
X
X
X
Lantana camara
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Leea indica
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Machilus macrantha
X
X
X
Macaranga sp.
X
X
X
X
X
X
Olea dioica
X
X
Santalum album
X
X
X
Scolopia crenata
X
X
Solanum indicum
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Spathodea campanulata
X
X
X
X
X
Syzygium cumini
X
X
*As recorded between April 1 978 to July 1 979; no data for September 1 978.
Almost all the trees except some Ficus fruit
annually at Thekkady. Though the fruiting period
varies from species to species and at times from
one individual to another, there appear to be two
peak periods of fruiting, April-June and
November-December. However, during April-
June 1979, comparatively few species of trees
were recorded fruiting. This could be due to lower
rainfall in the previous year, as the fruiting period
of the same tree may vary from year to year due
to rainfall and other climatic factors.
During April-June Actinodaphne hookeri,
Ficus gibbosa, F, tsiela, Grewia tiliciefolia,
Machilus macrantha, Macaranga sp., Olea
dioica, Santalum album, Scolopia crenata and
Syzygium cumini were the main fruiting trees.
During November-December, different
species of Ficus were the main fruiting trees.
Some other tree species also start flowering. From
the flowers of Erythrina indica, Bombax ceiba
and Spathodea sp., only M. viridis was seen sipping
nectar. Among these, Erythrina flowers for an
extended period of 5 months, mainly October to
February, Bombax flowers from November to
February and Spathodea mainly during June to
August, though some trees were found flowering
as late as November. Bischofia javanica fruits from
November to January, whereas, Bridelia retusa
fruits from August to November.
Fruits of Lantana camara and Solatium
indicum comprise the regular food of M. viridis.
These plants fruit almost throughout the year.
Leea indica, on which only M. viridis feeds, fruits
for a long period of 8 months (May to December),
some trees with a few fruits are found in other
months also (Table 2).
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
105
FOOD A ND FEEDING HA BITS OF INDIA N BA RBETS
The fruit abundance in this region from
April to June appears to be a reciprocal
adaptation with the breeding season of local
birds. Most of the resident birds breed during
this period (Yahya 1988) and thus the chances
of seed dispersal are maximum.
Ficus trees provide the maximum quantity
and variety of food to barbets. Ficus tsiela and
F. retusci are more versatile and one or other of
these species may be found fruiting throughout
the year. However, no fruit was recorded on
F. retusa in July-August. Ficus mysorensis and
F. insignis were recorded fruiting during the rainy
months, whereas F. gibbosa commonly fruits
during drier months. F. hispida and F. glomerata,
which were found fruiting invariably throughout
the study area (the former at Thekkady and the
latter at Lowercamp, Tamil Nadu) were never
eaten by either species. At Sanjay Gandhi
National Park, Mumbai M. zeylanica, were
observed at times pecking at the ripe receptacles
of F. glomerata , but never successfully, as the
fruit fell down before the bird could pluck it. This
could be due to the very weak peduncle of the
ripe receptacle. However, near Churchgate,
Mumbai, I found M. haemacephala pecking bit
by bit on the semi-ripe receptacle of F. glomerata,
but on no occasion did I find any barbet feeding
on F. hispida).
Comparatively few species of trees fruit
during February and March at Thekkady. This
could be due to the deciduous nature of the
dominant species. During this period, almost all
the trees shed their leaves, the rain is
comparatively meagre, and most of the trees
prepare for the forthcoming fruiting season.
According to Champion and Seth (1968) the
seasonal distribution of rainfall has a far-
reaching influence on the nature of vegetation.
Results and Discussion
The ratio of consumption of animal and
plant matter by M. viridis and M. rubricapilla is
almost similar in every month (Fig. 1 & 2), except
during the nesting period (March- July) for M.
viridis which then consumes a larger quantity of
animal matter. This could be due to the marked
difference between the nestlings’ food in the two
species (Yahya 1980, 1988).
% plant & animal matter
I % plant matter L 1 % animal matter
Fig. 1: Monthly feeding pattern of M. viridis
106
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF INDIAN BARBETS
Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr
1978 I 1979
■H % plant matter t I % animal matter
Fig. 2: Monthly feeding pattern of M. rubricapilla
Plant matter consumed by M. rubricapilla
was restricted to fruits, and was about 8% more
than that of M. viridis. However, the latter is a
more versatile vegetarian, feeding on a wider
range of vegetable matter. While M. viridis often
feeds on the nectar of various flowers, M.
rubricapilla was never found to do so.
Though predominantly frugivores, both
M. viridis and M. rubricapilla also feed on a large
amount of animal matter, the former consuming
about 10% more than the latter (Table 3). Animal
food items consumed by M. viridis were larger
in size and more diverse than those of M.
rubricapilla. M. viridis feeds on earthworms
(seen only twice) butterflies, dragonflies,
mantids, cicadas, beetles, spiders, termites and
caterpillars, whereas M. rubricapilla restricts
itself to smaller caterpillars, borer larvae, termites
and ants. Though the food preferences of these
congeneric species are distinguishable, their
feeding niches and food often overlap.
Vegetame tood of M. viridis and M. rubricapilla
As shown in Table 4, M. viridis and
M. rubricapilla both show a preference for
certain fruits in each month, but many fruits
favoured by one species are frequently taken by
the other also. Before analysing the data for a
possible explanation of how these two congeneric
sympatric species manage to coexist in the same
habitat, a broad outline of their month-wise food
items and preferences is given briefly.
During January-February when only a
Table 3
PERCENTAGE OF BARBETS FEEDING ON
PLANT/ANIMAL MATTER
Species
No. of individuals
Fruit/nectar
Insects
M. viridis (n = 3346)
2352 - 70.29%
994-29.71%
M. rubricapilla (n = 1 889)
1485-87.61%
404-21.39%
limited number of trees are fruiting, M. viridis
very frequently forages on shrubs, while M.
rubricapilla restricts itself to certain Ficus
species. The common trees, on which the feeding
of both species considerably overlaps during
this period, are Ficus mysorensis , F. retusa,
F. gibbosa, F. infectoria and F. tsiela. Among
these, M. rubricapilla shows a much higher
preference for/7, gibbosa, F. tsiala arid F. retusa,
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
107
Tablk 4
PERCENTAGE OF M. VIRIDIS AND M. RUBRIC APILLA FEEDING ON FRUITS/NECTAR
FOOD AND FEEDING HA BITS OF INDIAN BA RBETS
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108
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000
Table 4(contd.)
* PERCENTAGE OF M. VIRIDJS AND M. RUBRICAPILLA FEEDING ON FRUITS/NECTAR
FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF INDIAN BARBETS
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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
109
*Notes: Upper figures in each column are for M. viridis and lower for M. rubricapilla.
Percentage is calculated from the total number of birds observed feeding both on animal and plant materials.
Remaining percentage is formed by birds feeding on animal matter.
FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF INDIAN BARBETS
1 . Actinodaphne hookeri, 2. Ficus gibbosa, 3. F. retusa , 4. F. tsiela , 5. Grewia tiliaefolia,
6. Ficus mysorensis, 7. F. insignis.
Fig. 3: Percent difference in common fruits consumed by a: M. viridis , b: M. rubricapilla
whereas, both feed almost equally on F.
infectorici. Comparatively, M. viridis prefers
receptacles of F. mysorensis. In addition to
feeding together with M. rubricapilla on Ficus
trees, M. viridis frequently feeds on the fruits of
Bischofia javanica, Leea indica, Lantana
camara and Solanum indicum.
During March, F. retusa and F. tsiela are
the mam trees on which both species feed, M.
rubricapilla far more than M. viridis. In April,
several more species start fruiting. M. viridis
sho\vs a greater preference for Actinodaphne
hookeri which fruits from April to July. In
addition to berries of shrubs, M. viridis feeds
exclusively on Machilus macrantha. F. gibbosa
and F. tsiela fruit during April, for whose
receptacles M. rubricapilla always shows greater
preference (Fig. 3a & b).
From May to August, Grewia tiliaefolia,
F. retusa and F. tsiela are the main fruiting trees
on which both M. viridis and M. rubricapilla
feed. During this period, both barbets show a
higher preference for Grewia than for other fruits,
though as usual Ficus trees are also visited freely
and M. rubricapilla feeds more on Ficus
receptacles than M. viridis. In addition, M. viridis
also feeds on the fruits of Macaranga, Lantana,
Solanum and on nectar of Erythrina; rarely also
on nectar of Spathodea campanulata. The only
fruits on which M. rubricapilla feeds exclusively
are of Eucalyptus. During May to August, young
fruits of Eucalyptus are quite often eaten by
M. rubricapilla, mainly in the morning hours.
M. viridis does not feed on Eucalyptus fruits,
probably because this plant is recently (about 20
years earlier) introduced in the area. M. viridis
shows higher preference for the fruits of Olea
dioica, Scolopia crenata and Syzygium cum ini,
which appear from April to May. Sandalwood
drupes are exclusively eaten by M. viridis during
April-May.
During November-December M. viridis
shows a higher preference for the figs of F.
insignis, whereas M. rubricapilla feeds more
frequently on F. gibbosa, F. retusa and F. tsiela ;
both show almost equal preference for F.
infectoria. Only M. viridis feeds on fruits of
Solanum, Lantana and Leea indica, and nectar
of Bombax ceiba and Erythrina. Very rarely, both
feed on Evodea lunuankenda, Loranthus and
Vis cum berries.
Therefore, although both the species
no
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF INDIAN BARBETS
overlap on certain fruiting trees, almost every
month M. viridis feeds exclusively on certain
other fruits (such as Bridelia retusa, Carey a
arborea, Lantana camara, Leea indica), thus
reducing the extent of food competition.
Possible reasons for food preference
The primary reason for food preference in
M. viridis and M. rubricapilla appears to be the
size of the fruit. However, selection of food may
also depend on various other factors such as
colour, taste, nutritive value, and even on smell,
as suggested by several workers. Figs of F. tsiela ,
F. retusa , and F. gibbosa are preferred by M.
rubricapilla and those of F. mysorensis and F.
insignis by M. viridis. The figs of the former
group are about one-fourth the size of the latter
two. M. rubricapilla shows less preference for
the fruits of A. hookeri , G. tiliaefolia , Olea
dioica , Scolopia crenata and Syzygiutn cumin i,
which are larger than its favourite figs. The
frequency of feeding in relation to fruit size is
shown in Table 5. M. rubricapilla shows
markedly higher preference for smaller fruits,
though M. viridis also feeds on them.
Low preference for larger fruits by M.
rubricapilla can be correlated with its smaller
beak. Correlation between the size of the food
and beak has also been reported in the Galapagos
ground finches by Lack (1971), and in British
finches by Newton (1967). Vijayan (1975) also
found that the whitebrowed bulbul ( Pycnonotus
luteolus) with its slightly larger beak prefers
bigger sized fruits than the coexisting redvented
bulbul (P. cafer ).
Though not analysed statistically, M.
Table 5
PERCENTAGE OF M. VIRIDIS AND M. RUBRICAPILLA
FEEDING ON FRUITS OF DIFFERENT SIZE
Average size of the fruit
<8 mm 8- 1 6 mm > 1 6 mm
M. viridis (n = 2352) 37.45% 34.31% 28.24%
M. rubricapilla (n = 1 485) 70.09% 1 9.90% 1 0.01 %
zeylanica and M. haemacephala in San jay
Gandhi National Park, Borivli, Mumbai (SGNP)
and at Lowercamp, appeared to show remarkable
food preference according to size; the former
preferring figs of F. bengalensis and F
mysorensis, whereas the latter always
congregated in greater numbers on F. gibbosa,
F. infectoria and F. religiosa. M. zeylanica was
often found sipping nectar on Butea monosperma
at SGNP, but M. haemacephala was never seen
doing so. At Ranikhet (Uttar Pradesh) M. virens
was recorded gulping pear blossom ( Pyrus
sinensis ) conveniently owing to its large beak.
Animal food of M. viridis and M. rubricapilla
Insects of different groups comprise the
main animal food of M\ viridis and M.
rubricapilla. A month-wise record of animal food
taken by these two species is shown in Tables 3
and 4 respectively. They usually hunt insects
while following mixed hunting parties. However,
during the breeding season both search for insects
individually or in pairs. Quite often, both the
barbet species were found capturing winged
termites by short ‘flycatching’ sallies after light
rain during March- April. Thesekhunts normally
take place in groups; one such group of 30 M.
rubricapilla was recorded hunting winged
termites for 30 minutes at Thanikuddy area. All
the birds were perched on a Terminal ia
paniculata tree and caught the termites in the
air one by one as they emerged from the ground.
While the barbets were catching termites at about
16m height, swallows were also catching the
termites much higher than the barbets, while red-
whiskered bulbuls Pycnonotus jocosus were
diving after them from bushes nearby.
During April-May the teak defoliator,
Hyblaea puera, swarm on young teak leaves and
both barbets congregate in large numbers to feed
on these caterpillars along with other birds.
Except for this caterpillar, no swarming of any
particular species was noticed during the study
period at Thekkady. A Phalangid species was
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
FOOD A ND FEEDING HABITS OF INDIAN BA RBETS
found swarming in hundreds on some shrubs and
tree trunks throughout the year, but no bird was
seen to feed on them.
Formation of Mixed Hunting Parties (MHP)
At Thekkady, the formati on of large MHPs
is a common avian activity. Generally bright
hours of the day (Table 6) and comparatively open
areas are selected for foiming a MHP. In the non-
breeding season, both AT. viridis and M.
rubricapilla commonly hunt with MHPs. A MHP
sometimes follows a longer route, but normally
limits itself to a circumference of c. 250 m or so.
A ‘wave of birds’ as described by McClure (1972)
was always noticed while observing the MHP.
The difference between the flocks of insectivores
and those assembled in a fruiting tree is that the
insectivores’ ‘wave’ moves through the forest,
while the frugivores confine themselves to a
specific tree (McClure, 1972).
Table 6
PERCENTAGE OF M. VIRIDIS AND M. RUBRICAPILLA
FEEDING AT DIFFERENT HOURS OF THE DAY WITH
MIXED HUNTING PARTY A VERAGE OF 1 1 MONTHS
APRIL 1 978 TO APRIL 1 979
6 to 10
10 to 14
1 4 to 1 8
Total No. of
hr.
hr.
hr.
birds observed
M. viridis 09.75
75.00
15.25
682*/994**
M. rubricapilla 15.00
78.15
06.84
205*/404**
* Number of birds seen hunting with MHP
** Total number of birds seen feeding on animal mater
Position of barbets in MHP
Normally, 10-12 bird species comprise a
single MHP, but sometimes as many as 25 species
were recorded, the commonest and perhaps the
‘nucleus’ of the party being drongos. The
common species forming a MHP were usually
the racket-tailed drongo ( Dicrurus paradiseus ),
grey drongo (Z). leucophcieus ), bronzed drongo
( D . aeneus ), goldenbacked woodpecker
{Din opium benghalense), goldenbacked
threetoed woodpecker (D. javanense), common
and southern tree pies ( Dendrocitta vagabundci,
D. leucogastra ), common woodshrike
(Tephrodornis virgatus ), jungle and hill mynas
(Acridotheris fuscus, Gracula religiosa) minivets
(Pericrocotus flammeus, P. cinnamomeus ), tits
{Parus major, P. xanthogenys ) velvet-fronted
nuthach (Sitta frontalis ) and various species of
flycatchers. Barbets are opportunist members of
the party, joining a passing MHP and hunting
actively with the rest. AT. viridis being far more
active than AT. rubricapilla exploits the
maximum feeding zone.
While ‘flowing’ with the wave, AT. viridis
makes short sallies, glides down after insects or
even lands on the ground, whereas AT.
rubricapilla never descends below the secondary
level. However, both peck on dry and dead tree
trunks like woodpeckers, and at times on dry
leaves, and pick up caterpillars. Intraspecific
aggression between AT. viridis and AT.
rubricapilla was not as common in a MHP as
noted on fruit trees. This could be due to the
marked difference in their feeding zones and
larger feeding areas. On a fruit tree, especially
when fruit is scarce, there is more rivalry and
aggression — fight and chase — while in a MHP
the food resource is always scattered. However,
intraspecific aggression among AT. viridis itself
is not uncommon.
Aggression among other groups of birds
in a MHP is also not as common as among a
feeding flock of frugivores in a fruiting tree.
However, racket-tailed drongos always try to
dominate and chase other birds, even snatching
morsels from them, as I have witnessed on several
occasions.
Competition for Food and Coexistence
From the foregoing account, it appears that
AT. viridis and AT. rubricapilla do not compete
severely for food. However, they do overlap on
certain fruiting trees or when hunting in a mixed
hunting party of insectivores. As discussed below,
1 12
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
FOOD A ND FEEDING HA BITS OF INDIA N BA RBE TS
the food competition is further reduced owing to
their different feeding behaviour and overall
dimensions.
Feeding habitat
Utilisation of different parts of the
vegetation differs greatly between M. viridis and
M. vubriccipiUa. The feeding zone is clearly
distinguishable when both feed in a single
microhabitat. During the study period, whether
feeding on fruit or hunting insects, individually
or with MHP, 82% M. rubricapilla were recorded
feeding on the tertiary level, whereas only 51%
M. viridis fed at that level. M. rubricapilla was
seldom recorded descending below the secondary
level (Table 7), while M. viridis frequently fed
at the primary level or at times even on the
ground, M. rubricapilla never does so.
Table 7
PERCENTAGE OF M. VIRIDIS AND M. RUBRICAPILLA
FEEDING AT DIFFERENT LEVELS
M. viridis
(n = 3346)
M. rubricapilla
(n = 1889)
Ground
0.15%
-
Primary level, 1 to 4 m
18.42%
-
Secondary level, 4 to 8m
29.93%
17.06%
Tertiary level, above 8m
51.50%
82.94%
Ecological isolation by feeding heights has
been reported in English titmice Parus major by
Hartley (1953) and Gibb (1954). Vijayan (1975)
suggested that the difference in the feeding zone
is distinguishable in coexisting Pycnonotus cafer
and P. luteolus at Point Calimere (Tamil Nadu)
and plays a major role in isolating them
ecologically.
At Lowercamp, M. zeylanica , M. viridis
and M. haemacephala were sometimes observed
hunting together with a MHP. On those
occasions, the feeding zones of the three species
were always markedly different; M. zeylanica
hunted at the topmost level, M. haemacephala
mostly at secondary level, whereas M. viridis fed
at the primary and secondary levels.
Method of feeding
The feeding methods of M. viridis and M.
rubricapilla differ considerably, especially on
larger fruits like the receptacles of Ficus
mysorensis and F. bengalensis and other similar
sized fruits. While M. viridis swallows the entire
fruit, M. rubricapilla feeds by pecking and eating
it bit by bit. The difference in feeding method is
obviously due to the differences in their beak size.
While M. viridis swallows larger fruits easily,
M. rubricapilla cannot do so, and has to spend
more time and energy on the same fruit. At
Lowercamp, occasionally M. zeylanica , M.
viridis , M. haemacephala and sometimes M.
rubricapilla, were recorded feeding together on
F. bengalensis and F. mysorensis. The feeding
method of the two larger and two smaller 'pairs'
was noted to be different: M. zeylanica and M.
viridis with larger beaks normally swallowed the
entire receptacles, whereas the other two (with
almost equal beak size) fed by pecking at them
bit by bit. Such a difference in method of feeding
was recorded in unequal sized congeneric
sympatric M. asiatica and M. haemacephala, and
M lineata and M. haemacephala respectively
in Calcutta Botanical Garden and in Valmiki
Tiger Reserve (Bihar).
Even while hunting insects individually
or with MHP, M. viridis frequently catches
cicadas, butterflies and such larger insects,
whereas M. rubricapilla restricts itself to ants,
small flies and termites.
Feeding cycle
Barbets are voracious feeders and can be
seen feeding throughout the day. However,
intensity of feeding activity varies during
different hours of the day (Table 8). Both M.
viridis and M. rubricapilla show maximum
feeding activity during morning hours. M. viridis
is comparatively less active around noon and
more active in the afternoon. The difference in
feeding cycle appears to be due to the differences
in their roosting hours (Yahya 1987). On an
113
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000
FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF INDIAN BARBETS
average, M. rubricapilla roosts one hour longer
than M. viridis, and hence is probably more active
in the noon hours also, while M. viridis takes
rest. After some rest M. viridis becomes more
active and hence spends more time in feeding,
while in the later afternoon M. rubricapilla
spends more time in preparing to roost.
Table 8
PERCENTAGE OF M. VIRIDIS AND A/. RUBRICAPILLA
FEEDING AT DIFFERENT HOURS OF THE DAY ON
DIFFERENT FRUIT TREES
6 to 10
10 to 14
14 to 18
lus
hrs
hrs
M. viridis (n = 2325)
47.40
22.50
30.09
M. rubricapilla (n = 1485)
48.00
28.33
23.67
Similar results were obtained while
observing M. zeylanica and M. haemacephala
at Sanjay Gandhi National Park. M. zeylanica
showed less feeding activity during noon hours
whereas M. haemacephala was quite active
during that period. M. haemacephala also roosts
almost one hour longer than M. zeylanica (Yahya
1 987). Skutch (1944) also found the prong-billed
barbet most active in the morning hours and least
active at noon, when it rested for 1 to 2 hours.
Aggression at feeding sites
Intraspecific aggression is much more
pronounced in M. viridis than in M. rubricapilla.
The former is far more aggressive towards other
species of birds as well. While feeding with
frugivorous flocks, M. viridis chases almost all
birds except the koel Eudynamys scolopacea.
The koel was found to be the most dominant
species and no other bird dared to fight it back.
Intraspecific aggression at feeding sites might
play some role in isolating two congeneric
sympatric species and thus help in successful
coexistence. Grubh (1979) concludes that
intraspecific aggression at food plays an
important role in successful coexistence of the
Eurasian griffon Gyps fulvus, whitebacked
vulture G. bengalensis and longbilled vulture
G. indicus in Gir Forest: while the whitebacked
is comparatively peaceful at feeding sites, the
1 14
other two spend considerable time quarrelling
with their own kind, thereby indirectly permitting
the weaker whitebacked to feed.
Morphological adaptations for feeding
In physical dimensions M. viridis and M.
rubricapilla are different. The larger beak of
viridis enables it to swallow larger fruits and
insects, which rubricapilla cannot do. This could
help them in reducing food competition and
successful coexistence. Zacharias (1978) states
that owing to the difference in overall size, the
larger jungle babbler Turdoides striatus mostly
feeds on larger insects while hunting together
with whiteheaded babblers T. affinis. Another
point which supports the view that the overall
size difference in barbets may play an important
role in their successful coexistence is the common
occurrence side by side of two species of different
sizes. During my study I found M. viridis and
M. rubricapilla occurring together at Thekkady;
M. zeylanica and M. haemacephala coexisting
at Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Hazaribagh
National Park and at the Betla Tiger Reserve;
M. lineata and M. haemacephala coexisting in
Valmiki Tiger Reserve and Corbett National
Park, and M. asiatica and M. haemacephala in
Calcutta City. All these coexisting congeneric
species have the same remarkable differences in
size. Hinde (1959) suggested that the
morphological differences between coexisting
species are not merely adapted to feeding methods,
but largely determine them. The degree of
dominance while feeding may also vary according
to the body size as reported by Grubh ( 1 979) among
different species of griffon vultures - the largest
(Eurasian griffon) was found to be the most
dominant and the smallest (whitebacked) the least.
Conclusion
Though fruits of different species of plants
constitute the main food of barbets, both
M. viridis and M. rubricapilla feed on insects to
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
FOOD A ND FEEDING HA BITS OF INDIA N BA RBETS
a considerable extent. The former consumes
about 30% animal matter, whereas the latter
consumes about 20%. M. viridis consumes more
insects during the breeding season than M.
rubricapilla. Only M. viridis sips nectar from
flowers. Both species often hunt together with
mixed hunting parties of insectivores; M. viridis
always joins the party in larger numbers and for
longer periods. During March- April, after light
showers, both the species hunt winged termites
in groups; sometimes this single-species group
may consist of as many as 30 individuals.
Food competition between the coexisting
M. viridis and M. rubricapilla is not severe, for
they normally procure food from different feeding
zones. Intraspecific aggression among M. viridis
is markedly more while feeding either on a fruit
tree or with a mixed hunting party of insectivores
which reduces its competition for food with M.
rubricapilla to some extent. Another factor
responsible for ecological isolation in feeding
behaviour is the varying heights from which they
exploit food: while M. viridis feeds at primary,
secondary and tertiary levels, and at times lands
even on the ground, M. rubricapilla restricts
itself to the secondary and tertiary levels.
The study also supports Huxley’s (1942)
postulation that “big size difference between
congeneric species of birds are means of ecological
isolation”. Based on the data collected in the
present study, it could be added that since food is
the primary requirement of an animal, for the
successful coexistence of two closely related species
in a single habitat, divergent morphological
adaptations in relation to feeding habits are an
outcome of the process of natural selection.
Refer
Ali, Salim, (1935): The ornithology of Travancore and
Cochin (with notes by Hugh Whistler) Part 1 .
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 37: 814-843.
Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968): A revised survey of
the forest types of India. Govt, of India Press, New
Delhi.
Gibb, John. (1954): Feeding ecology of tits, with notes on
Barbets are economically important and
play a significant role in controlling various
harmful insects, in cross-pollination and seed
dispersal of trees. Though they are presently
common in many places, their conservation
priorities should be anticipated by wildlife
biologists and managers to maintain sustainable
populations of different species.
Acknowledgements
I am greatly indebted to the late Dr. Salim
Ali for his guidance, constant interest and
constructive criticism at various stages of the
study. I am grateful to the Bombay Natural
History Society for supporting the study under
Salim Ali — Loke Wan Tho Ornithological
Research Fund. Mr. J.C. Daniel, Mr. S.A.
Hussain, Dr. Robert Gmbh and Dr. V.S. Vijayan
kindly visited the study area and provided
valuable suggestions. Dr. Mohammed Ali Raza
Khan and Dr. Priya Davidar were always source
of encouragement throughout the study.
I thank Mr. K.K. Nair, Ex. CCF (Kerala)
for permission for field study, and Mr. S.N.
Asari, Field Director of Periyar Tiger Reserve
and his subordinate officers for help. Dr. P.S.
Easa, Dr. M. Balakrishnan, Dr. Lalitha Vijayan,
Dr. K.K. Ramachandran and other members of
Kerala Forest Research Institute were very
cooperative while working at Thekkady. I thank
Babu and Kumaran (local assistants) for their
tireless help during the fieldwork. I am obliged
to my colleagues Drs. Asad R. Rahmani, Salim
Javed and Satish Kumar for peer reviewing the
draft and helping in preparing the diagrams.
ENC ES
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Grubh. R.B. (1979): Competition and Co-existence in
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814.
Hartley, P.H.T ( 1 953): An ecological study of the feeding
habits of the English Titmice. J. Anim. Ecol. 22:
261-288.
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Hinde. R.S. (1959): Behaviour and speciation in birds and
lower vertebrates. Bird Rev. 34: 85-128.
Huxley, J.S. (1942): Evolution: The Modern Synthesis.
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Lack, D. (1971): Ecological Isolation in Birds. Blackwell
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McClure, E.H. (1972): Two Tropical forests and their
birds. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 71: 517-535.
Newton, I. (1967a): The adaptive radiation and feeding
ecology of some British Finches. Ibis 109: 33-78.
Rjpley, S.D. (1961): A Synopsis of the Birds of India and
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— An aid to Birdwatching in the Periyar Sanctuary,
Kerala. Tourism & Wildlife Society of India.
Simmons, K.E.L. (1970): Ecological determinations of
breeding adaptation and social behaviour in two
fish-eating birds. Social behaviour in Birds &
Mammals. Edited by Crook. H.J. The Whitefriars
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Skutch, A.F. ( 1 944): The life-history of the Prong-billed
Barbet. Ank 61: 61-87.
Vijayan, L. (1 984): Comparative biology ofDrongos with
special reference to ecological isolation. Ph.D.
thesis, Dept, of Field Ornithology, Bombay Natural
History Society, Bombay.
Vijayan, V.S. (1975): Ecological isolation in Bulbuls
(Family Pycnonotidae. Class Aves) with special
reference to Pycnonotus cafercafer (Linnaeus) and
P. luteolus( Lesson) at Point Cali mere. Tamil Nadu.
Ph.D. Thesis. University of Bombay.
Yahya, H.S.A. (1980): A comparative study of ecology
and biology of Barbets. Megalaima spp.
(Capitonidae: Piciformes) with special reference to
Megalaima viridis (Boddaert) and M. rubricapilla
malabarica (Blyth) at Periyar Tiger Reserve.
Kerala. Ph.D. thesis, University of Bombay.
Yahya, H.S.A. (1982): Observation on the feeding
behaviour of barbets, Megalaima spp. in Coffee
estates of South India. J. Coffee Research 12(3):
72-76.
Yahya, H.S.A. (1987): Roosting behaviour of barbets,
Megalaima spp. In: Recent Trends in Ethology Ed.
M. Balakrishnan & K.K. Alexander Ethological
Society of India, Bangalore, pp 101-106.
Yahya, H.S.A. (1988): Breeding biology of barbets,
Megalaima spp. with special reference to M. viridis
and M. rubricapilla malabarica at Periyar Tiger
Reserve, Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85(3):
493-511.
Yahya, H.S.A. ( 1 989): Habitat preference of birds in the
Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala. Indian Journal of
Forestry 12(4): 288-295.
Yahya, H.S.A. (1991 ): Drinking and bathing behaviour of
barbets, Megalaima spp. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
88(3): 454-455.
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species of Indian Babblers ( Turdoides spp.) in
Malabar, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Calicut, Kerala.
■ H ■
116
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
SPINY EELS OF THE GENUS MACROGNATHUS LACEPEDE FROM MANIPUR,
WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES'
L. Arunkumar and H. Tombi Singh2
( With four text-figures )
Key words: Macrognathus morehensis sp. nov., Yu drainage system, Manipur.
The paper gives a systematic account of two species of Macrognathus, hitherto known
from Manipur, viz. M. aral (Bloch & Schneider) and M. pancaius Hamilton-Buchanan,
which are distributed in the Barak drainage system and in the hill streams of Manipur
respectively. A new species M. morehensis occurring in Manipur has been described here.
It is found in the southeastern corner of this state and the adjoining areas of Myanmar,
drained by the Yu drainage system, known as the Chindwin of Meaner. The diagnostic
feature of M. morehensis is the combination of the following distinctive characters: 1 1 to
16 dorsal spines, 20 to 25 broad black transverse bars, 12 to 14 black spots that form
imperfect ocelli at the base of dorsal fin rays, 6 black oval spots at the base of dorsal
spines, 10 to 13 black spots at the base of anal fin rays, 5 to 7 oblique striations of black
dots arranged in longitudinal parallel rows at the dorsal and anal fin rays, 7 to 10 black
lines of striations formed by the dots at the caudal fin, a single ocellus at base of caudal
fin, 8 to 11 rostral tooth-plates, and 76 vertebrae.
Introduction
Manipur is an isolated hill state in the
northeast corner of India having three drainage
systems: the Barak, Manipur, and Yu drainage
systems draining the western, central and eastern
water bodies respectively (Fig. 4). The Barak
drainage system is connected with the Barak-
Brahmaputra river system of India, whereas the
Manipur drainage and the Yu drainage systems
are connected with the Chindwin river system
of Myanmar.
Hora (1921) described a new species of
spiny eel, Mastacembelus manipurensis from
Khurda (Khordak) stream of Manipur and
Rhynchob della dhcinashorii from Dhanashori
stream, about a mile from Dimapur, Assam.
Menon (1954), while reporting on the fishes
known from Manipur, listed two spiny eels,
viz. M. armatus and M. manipurensis. Later,
Menon (1974) considered M. manipurensis and
‘Accepted August, 1997.
department of Life Sciences, Manipur University,
Canchipur795 003, Imp'hal, Manipur, India.
R. dhanashorii as synonyms of M. armatus and
Macrognathus aculeatus respectively. Presently,
three species, viz. M. aral (Bloch & Schneider),
M. guentheri (Day) and M. pancaius Hamilton-
Buchanan have been reported from Indian
waters (Talwar and Jhingran, 1991).
No further report is available on the spiny
eels of the genus Macrognathus of Manipur.
Recently, several specimens of Macrognathus
were obtained from the Lokchao river and the
Maklang river of the Yu drainage system of this
state near Moreh, which is known as Chindwin
of Meaner. From this collection, a new species,
Macrognathus morehensis , is described here.
Material and Methods
Fishes were collected using different types
of nets, grooping, dewatering of shallow water
pockets and with the help of local fishermen.
Some fishes were also purchased from Moreh
Bazar, Chandel dist. , Manipur, near the Indo-
Myanmar border. In the field, their local names
and fresh colours were noted.The fishes were
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
NE W DESCRIP TIONS
then preserved in 10% formaline and brought
to the Fishery Laboratory of Manipur University.
The fishes were identified with reference
to Day (1889), Hamilton-Buchanan (1822),
Roberts (1980, 1986) and, Talwar and Jhingran
(1991). The specimens were deposited in the
Manipur University Museum of Fishes (MUMF).
Registration numbers are given below.
Results
Macrognathus aral (Bloch & Schneider)
(Fig. 1)
Fig. 1: Macrognathus aval (Bloch and Schneider)
Rhynchobdella dhcinashorii Flora, 1921.
Rec. Indian Mus., XXII : 205, PI. IX fig. 2 (sp.
nov.).
Macrognathus aral Roberts, 1980.
Copeia, 3: 385-391, fig. 1 2b (Revision).
Macrognathus aval Talwar & Jhingran,
1991 Inland Fish. India & Adjacent Countries ,
2\ 1026 (Distribution extended).
Manipuri name: Ngaril/Jirigi ngaril
pokch aob i/Ngari l yangmitpanbi.
Material examined: 3 exs. Uncat.
MUMF. 1 from Jiri River; 120 mm total length;
7. viii. 1 995, 2 ex. Makru stream; 124 to 135 mm
total length; 2.ix.l985, coll. M.G. Sharma, 1
ex. MUMF 20 1/1 A, Jiri River, 205 mm total
length, 16.x. 1992, coll. L.A.
Distribution: Manipur: Barak drainage
system.
Remarks: Formerly reported as M.
aculeatus and distributed strictly in the western
sides of this state, drained by the Barak drainage
system of the Brahmaputra system in India. It is
easily distinguished from M. aculeatus by the
lack of 14 to 17 oblique dark bars on the body
and smaller number of rostral tooth-plates (18
to 21 vs. 38 to 55). Roberts (1980) stated that
M. aculeatus was known from the southern half
of the Malay Peninsula: several of the principal
rivers of Sumatra; the Kapaus river of Borneo
and northern Java as far east as the Brantas river.
The specimens (M. aral) from the Barak
drainage of Manipur are similar to M. siamensis
(Roberts 1980) in the presence of ocelli at the
base of dorsal fin rays, but can be easily
distinguished by the lack of ocelli at caudal fin,
smaller number of rostral tooth-plates ( 1 8 to 2 1
vs. 7 to 14), and total number of vertebrae (71
vs. 75).
Macrognathus pancalus Hamilton-Buchanan
(Fig. 2)
Fig. 2: Macrognathus pancalius Hamilton-Buchanan
Macrognathus pancalus Hamilton-
Buchanan, 1822. Fish Ganges, 30, 364. pi.
XXII, fig. 7.
Mastacembelus pancalus Sufi, 1956 Bull.
Raffles Mus., 27: 93-146 (Revision).
Macrognathus pancalus Talwar &
Jhingran, 1991 Inland Fish. India & Adjacent
Countries , 2: 1027-1028, Fig. 292.
Manipuri name: Ngaril/Ching-ngaril-
macha.
Material examined: 3 exs. MUMF 202/
3A, 1 ex. Jiri River; 1 1 1 mm total length;
1 3 .xii. 1 990, 1 ex. Litan stream at the root of
Thoubal river; 132 mm total length; 15.xi.1991
and 1 ex. Maklang river; 124 mm total length;
8. xii. 1992, coll. L.A.
Distribution: Manipur: Hill streams and
118
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 97(1) APR. 2000
NE W DESCRIP TIONS
rivers of the Barak drainage, the upper and lower
regions of Manipur drainage and the Yu drainage
system.
Remarks: It is the smallest among spiny
eels and mainly found in hill streams. A distinct
streak of longitudinal spots runs along the lateral
line from the eye to the base of caudal fin in the
present specimen, with 65 to 66 vertebrae.
Roberts ( 1986) mentioned that it belongs to the
second group of Macrognathus which lack
rostral tooth-plates.
Macrognathus morehensis sp. nov.
(Fig. 3)
Fig. 3: Macrognathus morehensis sp. nov.,
MUMF 203/8 A Paratype, 147 mm TL,
Manipur: Yu drainage system.
Holotype: MUMF 203/1 A, fromMaklang
river near Moreh Bazar, Chandel district, 155
mm total length 17.x. 1992. Coll. L.A.
Paratypes. MUMF 203/8A, 3, from
Lokchao river near Moreh Bazar. 5 from Moreh
Bazar; near Indo-Myanmar border, 80 to 147
mm total length. 2 1.x. 1992. Coll. L.A.
Manipuri name: Ngaril/Ngamoi-tup/
Ngamu-tup/Tou-ngaril
Diagnosis: A Macrognathus has the
distinctive combination of the following
characters: (i) 1 1 to 16 dorsal fin spines, (ii) 20
to 25 black broad transverse bars on the body,
(iii) 8 to 11 rostral tooth-plates, (iv) 12 to 14
black spots that are imperfect ocelli at the base
of dorsal fin rays, (v) 10 to 13 distinct black
spots at the base of anal fin rays, (vi) 6 black
oval spots at the base of dorsal spines, (vii) 5 to
7 oblique striations of black dots arranged in
parallel longitudinal rows at the dorsal and anal
fin rays, (viii) 7 to 10 black lines of striations
formed by dots at the caudal fin, (ix) a single
ocellus at the base of caudal fin and (x) 76
vertebrae.
Description: Br. 3-5, D. 11-16/39-51,
P. 15-20, A. 3/40-54, C. 11-14. Body slightly
compressed. Rostrum slightly rounded. Pre-
orbital and pre-opercular spines absent. Head
long and pointed. Mouth inferior, cleft of mouth
narrow. Ventral side of snout transversely
striated by 2 to 4 black bars. Eyes not visible
from ventral side and covered by a thin
membrane. Eye diameter more or less same as
the interorbital distance. Lips thin. No gill
rakers. Caudal fin distinctly separated from the
dorsal and anal fins. Scales are minute. The third
anal spine is very near the origin of anal soft fin
rays and difficult to identify, since it is buried
inside the skin.
Proportional measurements of holotype
and paratypes (the latter in parenthesis):
Depth of body 10.97 (11.11-12.93), height of
head at eye 4.51 (4.08-6.25), height of head at
occiput 6.45 (6.25-7.69), length of head at
occiput 12.90 (11.11-15.47), length of head at
the end of lateral operculum 17.42 (17.36-22.22)
and length of caudal fin 7.09 (6.94-9.52) in the
percentage of total length respectively.
Depth of body 1 1 .80 (1 1 .94-13.79), height
of head at eye 4.86 (4.41-6.84), height of head
at occiput 6.94 (6.72-8.33), length of head at
the end of lateral operculum 18.76 (18.65-
24.33), length of pectoral fin 6.94 (7.14-8.62),
predorsal length at the origin of dorsal fin spine
of 43.85 (43.29-46.72), and predorsal length at
the origin of dorsal fin soft rays 63.29 (62.1 1-
69.93) in the percentage of standard length
respectively.
Diameter of eye 33.33 (33.33-35.59),
interorbital distance 33.33 (33.33-35.95) and
width of mouth 22.22 (20.00-25.00) in
percentage of length of snout respectively.
Colour: Body light yellowish to ashy. In
young stages (81-120 mm total length), the
dorsal fin soft rays, anal fin soft rays and caudal
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
119
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Fig. 4: Map of Manipur showing distribution of Macrognathus
fins are distinctly red with black striations and
pin dotted transverse bars along their entire
length. Abdomen yellowish white.
Habitats: M. morehensis has a habit of
actively burrowing in the swampy and vegetated
stream bed. The inhabitants of Kwatha village
near Moreb, of the Indo-Myanmar border call it
‘ Tou-ngariV , according to the habitat of the fish.
The fish hides under pebbles, stones, gravel,
sandy beds of clear torrential stream. It makes
small pits and holes in the swampy arid vegetated
beds of stagnant streams and waterbodies. The
fish is associated with Amblypharyngodon molci ,
Aspidoparia morar , Badis badis , Chanda nama ,
Chela laubuca , Colisa fasciata , Danio
aequipinnatus , Esomus dancricns , Garni gravelyi ,
120
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1) APR. 2000
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
G. lissorhynchus , G. rupecola, Glyptothorax
pectinoptems , G platypogonoides , G. trilineatus,
Mystus bleekeri , M. cavasius , Nemacheilus
vinciguerrae and Parluciosoma dciniconius. Its
distribution extends upto Tumu of Myanmar.
Remarks: M. morehensis is easily
distinguished from M. guentheri (Day) and M.
pancalus Hamilton-Buchanan by the presence
of rostral tooth-plates. It is also easily
distinguished from M. aral (Bloch & Schneider)
by the presence of less rostral tooth-plates (8-11
vs. 14-28), dorsal fin spines (11-16 vs. 16-23),
total number of vertebrae (76 vs. 7 1 ), coloration
(indistinct i.e. imperfect ocelli vs. distinct ocelli
at base of the dorsal soft fin rays, and an ocellus
at base of caudal fin vs. absent) and specific
distribution, viz. Yu drainage system vs. Barak
drainage system of Manipur.
Etymology: The specific name is derived
from Moreh, the type locality of the fish.
Discussion: Roberts (1980, 1986) stated
that M. aculeatus was known strictly from the
southern half of the Malay Peninsula. He
synonymised and referred all the formerly well
known species of M. aculeatus which are
distributed in India to M. aval. M. aculeatus had
not been found in Myanmar or in the Indian
subcontinent, but was found in Thailand at Surat
Thani, Chiao Lam and the Tapi River basin.
M. morehensis can be easily differentiated
from M. caudiocellatus, M. circumcinctus , M.
semiocellatus and M. zebrinus by the absence
of preopercular and preorbital spines, and
presence of rostral tooth-plates.
M. morehensis differs from M. aral in
having a smaller number of rostral tooth-plates
(8-11 vs. 14-28), fewer dorsal fin spines (11-16
vs. 1 6-23), more vertebrae (76 vs 7 1 ) and pattern
of bands (20 to 25 transverse dark bars vs. 2
pale longitudinal stripes along its entire length).
M. morehensis differs from M. aculeatus
in having fewer rostral tooth-plates (8-11 vs. 29-
55) and numbers of oblique transverse bars on
the body (20-25 vs. 14-17).
M morehensis differs from M. meklongensis
in having a smaller number of dorsal fin rays (39-
51 vs. 50-54), pectoral fin rays (15-20 vs. 22-23),
caudal fin rays (11-14 vs. 16-19), coloration of
black spots at dorsal fin base (12-14 distinct large
spots which are imperfect ocelli vs. no ocelli or
10-12 faint small ocelli), rim of anterior nostril
with finger-like projections (absent vs. 6) and
transverse bars on the body (20-25 vs. absence of
transverse bars).
M. morehensis differs from M. siamensis
in the presence of fine dark striations in the
caudal fin (7-10 fine black striations formed by
dots vs. absence of striations), ocelli in the dorsal
fin base (12-14 black spots which are imperfect
ocelli vs. with series of large and distinct form
of ocelli), fine oblique striations in the dorsal
soft fin-rays (5-7 vs. absent) and distribution
(Manipur vs. Thailand and Kampuchea).
M. morehensis has a restricted distribution
in Moreh, near the Indo-Myanmar border,
Chandel Dist., Manipur at lower portion of
Lokchao river, Pumpum stream of Kwatha,
Lairok Maru, lower portion of Maklang river,
which belong to the Yu drainage- system of
Manipur, extend to Myanmar and join the
Chindwin river. The fish was also collected from
the adjoining areas of Manipur-Myanmar border
of the Yu river system, which is known as the
Chindwin of Meaner.
According to Kottelat (1989) and Zakana-
Ismail (1994), M. aral, M. caudiocellatus and
M. zebrinus are the Salween elements of fishes.
Kottelat (loc. cit.) described M. aculeatus as the
Malay peninsular element of fish and
M. circumcinctus, M. meklongensis, M.
semiocellatus and M. siamensis as the Thailand
elements of fishes. According to Zakaria-Ismail
(loc. cit.) M. aculeatus, M. caudiocellatus,
M. circumcinctus, M. meklongensis, M.
semiocellatus and M. siamensis belong to
the Indo-Chinese elements of fishes. M.
pancalus is the true Indian element of fish.
Hence M. morehensis is a distinct species with
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1), APR. 2000
121
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
meristic, morphometry, anatomy (vertebrae),
colour pattern and specific distributional areas,
i.e. the Chindwin of Meaner as the defining
features.
ACKNOWLEDGEM ENTS
The first author thanks Dr. W. Vishwanath
Refe
Day, F. (1889): The Fauna of British India, including
Ceylon and Burma, Fishes, 2, 509. Taylor and
Francis, London.
Hamilton-Buchanan, F. (1822): An account of the fishes
found in the river Ganges and its tributaries, vii, 1-
405, 39 pis. Edinburgh and London.
Hora, S.L. ( 1 92 1 ): Fish and fisheries of Manipur with some
observations on those of Naga Hills. Rec. Indian Mus.
22(3): 165-214.
Kottelat, M. (1989): Zoogeography of the fishes from
Indo-Chinese inland waters with an annotated
checklist. Bull. Zool. Mus. 12: 1-55.
Menon, A.G.K. (1954): Further observations on the fish
fauna of Manipur state. Rec. Indian Mus. 25(1):
21-26.
Menon, A.G.K. (1974): A check-list of fishes of the
Himalayan and the Indo-Gangetic plains. Inland
of Manipur University, Dr. Maurice Kottelat of
Switzerland (CMK), Dr. Kelvin K.P. Lim, and
Dr. Peter K.L. Ng of National University,
Singapore and Dr. Mohd. Zakaria Ismail of
University of Malaya for help. We also thank
UGC, Special Assistance Programme, Life
Sciences Department, Manipur University for
financial assistance.
E n c e s
Fisheries Society of India. Special Publications. 1.
pp 136.
Roberts, T.R. ( 1 980): A revision of the Asian Mastacembelid
fish genus Macrognathus. Copeia 3: 385-391 .
Roberts, T.R. (1986): Systematic review of the
Mastacembelidae or Spiny eels of Burma and
Thailand, with description of two new species of
Macrognathus. Jap. J. Ichthyol. 33(2): 95-109.
Sufi, S.F.K. ( 1 956): Revision of the Oriental fishes of the
family Mastacembelidae. Bull. Raffles Mus. 27: 93-
146.
Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran: Inland Fishes of India and
Adjacent Countries. 2, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co.
Pvt. Ltd., Calcutta. 543-1 1 58.
Zakaria-Ismail, M. (1 994): Zoogeography and biodiversity
of the freshwater fishes of Southeast Asia.
Hydrobiologia. 285: 41-48.
122
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1) APR. 2000
THREE NEW GENERA OF WHITEFUES MOHANASUNDARAMIELLA,
SHANTHINIAE AND VA SANTHARAJIELLA (ALEYRODIDAE : HOMOPTERA)
FROM INDIA1
P. Manidurai Manoharan David-
( With three text-figures)
Key words : Whiteflies, Aleyrodidae, Homoptera, Mohanasundaramiella , Shanthiniae,
V cisantharajiella
In a survey conducted in the southern districts of Tamil Nadu and the adjoining forests of
Kerala during 1991-1994, 84 species of aleyrodids under 34 genera were collected and
studied. Of the 34 genera three, viz., Mohanasundaramiella, Shanthiniae and
Vasantharajiella were found to be new and
Genus Mohanasundaramiella gen. nov.
Type-species: Mohanasundaramiella
rubiae sp. nov.
Pupal case oval in outline, pale with no
wax secretion; margin lobulate to serratulate;
marginal setae present; tracheal pores and combs
absent; submargin characteristically separated
from dorsal disc by a well defined furrow;
submarginal transverse ridges and furrows
conspicuous; subdorsal fold-like suture extending
between meso-metathoracic suture and
third-fourth abdominal suture; submarginal setae
present; cephalic, mesothoracic, metathoracic,
first abdominal, eighth abdominal and caudal
setae present; first abdominal setae located
late rad of subdorsal fold- like suture. Vasiform
orifice subcordate, operculum filling orifice,
lingula tip exposed but included. Caudal furrow
and ridges absent. Tracheal folds discernible.
Diagnosis. This genus is strikingly
different from the known genera of Aleyrodini
in having a well defined submarginal furrow that
distinguishes submargin from dorsal disc. It
resembles some species of Crenidorsum Russell
in the furrow in inner subdorsal area of
'Accepted August, 1 999
department of Agricultural Entomology,
Agricultural College & Research Institute,
Killikulam, Vallanad 628 252, Tamil Nadu, India.
are described and illustrated.
cephalothorax and abdomen, but differs from
them in the presence of first abdominal setae and
conspicuous submargin. Other distinguishing
characters include presence of fewer than 19-21
pairs of dorsal setae that separate it from
Aleuromarginatus Corbett, presence of first
abdominal setae on subdorsum that are absent
in Aleyrodes Latreille, presence of submedian
meso- and metathoracic setae that are lacking in
Aleurocybotus Quaintance & Baker, oval shape
of pupal case that is typically elongate,
parallel-sided and slightly square anteriorly and
posteriorly in Aleurotulus Quaintance & Baker,
and presence of minute submarginal setae that
do not occur in Aleurotrachelus Quaintance &
Baker.
Etymology: This genus is named in honour
of Dr. M. Mohanasundaram, Professor of
Agricultural Entomology, Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University, Coimbatore, the
renowned acarologist, who taught the author the
science of taxonomy, and suggested this study.
Mohanasundaramiella rubiae gen. et sp. nov.
(Fig. 1)
Pupal case: Oval in shape. 1.03-1.05 mm
long and 0.87-0.89 mm wide, widest across
abdominal segment III. Pale white with no wax
secretion. Living on either surface of leaves.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
123
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Fig. 1 : MohanasundaramieUa rubiae gen. et sp. nov. : A. pupal case; B. prothoracic leg and antenna;
C. margin; D. vasiform orifice; E. disc pore and porette
Margin; Lobulate to serratulate, about 14
teeth occupying 0.1 mm length of margin; teeth
each longer than wide; margin slightly indented
at cephalic and caudal ends medially and at
thoracic tracheal pore areas. Tracheal pores and
combs wanting. Anterior marginal setae 18.6 pm
long, posterior marginal setae 38.0 pm long.
Dorsum: Dorsal disc separated from
submargin by a distinct furrow. Submargin rather
uniformly wide. Well defined transverse ridges
124
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1) APR. 2000
NE W DESCRIPTIONS
and furrows running mesad from margin to outer
subdorsum; adjoining 2-3 furrows more
sclerotized, alternating every 3-4 less prominent
ridges and furrows. Minute submarginal setae
m 8 pairs, 6 on cephalothorax and 2 on abdomen,
6.2-12.4 pm long. Dorsal disc with numerous
disc pores and porettes, one row in submarginal
fold, one each at the darker transverse furrows.
Transverse moulting suture reaching margin,
curved caudad from its midpoint, terminating
slightly anterior to the first-second abdominal
suture at the longitudinal subdorsal fold-like
suture which characteristically extends between
meso-metathoracic suture and third-fourth
abdominal suture. Meso-metathoracic suture
much pronounced. Abdominal segmentation
distinct. Abdominal segments IV- VI with a weak
rachis, their sutures running lateral into
subdorsum. Median length of abdominal segment
VII slightly shorter than that of VI. Submedian
cephalic setae long, tapered with a prominent
base, 86.8 pm long. Two pairs of submedian
thoracic setae present: one pair on mesothorax
18.6 pm long, the other on metathorax 34.1 pm
long. First abdominal setae transpositioned on
subdorsum laterad of longitudinal fold-like
suture, 6.2 pm long. Eighth abdominal setae 65. 1
pm to at least 114.7 pm long, their bases
anterocephalad of vasiform orifice. Caudal setae
28.0-74.4 pm long, located on submargin.
Submedian abdominal depressions weak.
Vasiform orifice subcordate with a broader
rim, 46.5 pm long, 62.0 pm wide, posterior
margin notched inside. Operculum of identical
shape, filling three-fourths of orifice, 34.1 pm
long and 46.5 pm wide. Lingula tip setose,
exposed but included. Caudal furrow and caudal
ridges absent.
Venter: Thoracic tracheal folds faint,
caudal fold distinct. Anterior thoracic and
posterior abdominal spiracles evident. Adhesive
sacs present. Antennae reaching anterior thoracic
spiracles, their tips with a finger-like projection.
Ventral abdominal setae 37.2 pm long.
Host: Morindci sp. (Rubiaceae)
Holotype: One pupal case mounted on
slide, on Morindci sp., india: Kerala: Walayar
forest, 24.ix.1992, coll. M. Mohanasundaram
(No. 58 A.I.).
Paratypes: Six pupal cases on slides, same
data as holotype.
Etymology: Species name derived from
Rubiaceae, the host plant family.
Remarks. Two out of the seven pupal cases
are parasitised.
Genus Shanthiniae gen. nov.
Type-species: Shanthiniae sheryli sp. nov.
Pupal case rather uniquely polyhedral in
outline with lateral evaginations at six places
on either side; margin very finely crenulate and
crenate-looking, margin at pore area cleft;
marginal setae present; thoracic tracheal pores
well defined, inset with a single not very
conspicuous tooth; dorsum ornamental with
spots, reticulations; transverse moulting suture
reaching margin; bases of cephalic, first
abdominal and eighth abdominal setae distinct,
caudal setae not discernible; abdominal
segments VI and VII equally long, porettes with
typically sclerotized rims; vasiform orifice
cordate, with posterior margin toothed,
operculum filling the orifice, lingula concealed;
caudal furrow and ridges distinct; thoracic and
caudal tracheal folds defined.
Diagnosis: Pupal case outline of this genus
is extraordinarily unique in being a 12-sided
polyhedron with six corners on either side. This
shape is not seen in any other whitefly species
or genera of the world. However, Shanthiniae is
related to Dialeurodes Cockerell, Dialeurolonga
Dozier, and Dialeuronomanda Quaintance &
Baker in the distinct structure of thoracic
tracheal pore with tooth and in the presence of
a comb of teeth in the inner margin of vasiform
orifice, especially posteriorly. It shows affinity
to Dialeurolonga in lacking subdorsal or
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1), APR. 2000
125
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
submarginal row of setae but can be
distinguished by the absence of small papillae
in a row on the submarginal area. Its abdominal
segments I-IV are subequal in length, similar to
those in Dialeurodes, but are distinctive in the
absence of a row of subdorsal setae. In both,
Shanthiniae and Dialeuronomada, medium
length of abdominal segment VII is shorter than
that of VIII. Presence of a row of 12 marginal
setae and a peripheral row of characteristic
papillae on the submarginal area readily separate
the latter from the former. The new genus differs
from all the above three genera in the
characteristic sclerotic pattern on the dorsum,
in the transverse moulting suture typically
reaching margin, in the location of vasiform
orifice not greater than its length from posterior
body margin, and in the absence of stipples in
the tracheal folds as well.
Etymology: This genus is named after the
author’s wife Mrs. Shanthini David.
Shanthiniae sheryli gen. et sp. nov. (Fig. 2)
Pupal case: Typically polyhedral, with six
corners on either side. 0.68 mm long and 0.56
mm wide, widest across abdominal segment I.
Black in colour with no wax secretion.
Margin: Very finely crenulate and
crenate-looking, with about 4 crenulations in
0.1 mm length of margin; crenulations each
much wider than long, their apices subconical
to rounded or rather straight. Margin at pore
area cleft. Thoracic tracheal pores well defined,
inset with a single tooth-like projection. Caudal
tracheal pore area not inset. Anterior marginal
setae 9.3 pm long, posterior marginal setae
12.4 pm long.
Dorsum: Ornamented with spots, reticula-
tions and minute tubercles. Submargin narrowly
marked by a weak furrow. Transverse ridges and
furrows running mesad from margin and
submargin to anastamose in the dorsal disc area,
giving a leopard skin-like appearance to the
dorsum. Marginal furrows each alternated with
2-4 submarginal ones. Subdorsum granulated.
Submedian area on cephalothorax and median
area on abdominal segments densely spotted.
Longitudinal and transverse moulting sutures
reaching margin, the ends of the latter opposite
meso-metathoracic suture. Base of cephalic, first
and eighth abdominal setae distinct, setae very
minute; bases of eighth abdominal setae located
laterad of top of vasiform orifice. Caudal setae
not discernible. Segmenta-tion distinct in
submedian area; sutures each with anterior and
posterior branches, their ends anastomosing with
subdorsal reticulation. Median length of abdo-
minal segments subequal, median length
gradually decreasing from abdominal segment
I- VII; that of VII as long as that of VI and shorter
than VIII. Disc pores and porettes present on
dorsai disc; porettes dark-rimmed and
characteristically sclerotized laterad.
Vasiform orifice cordate, located about its
length from posterior body margin, its sides
prominent; its inner margin with teeth,
especially posteriorly; 37.2 pm long and 34.1
pm wide. Operculum cordate, nearly filling the
orifice; 24.8 pm long and 27.9 pm wide. Lingula
concealed. Caudal furrow well defined. Caudal
ridges distinct.
Venter: Thoracic and caudal tracheal folds
well defined. Ventral abdominal setae 9.3 pm
long. All four pairs of spiracles evident, anterior
thoracic spiracles larger than others. Setae or
spines on legs not discernible. Antennae
reaching the base of prothoracic legs. Adhesive
sacs not discernible. Rostrum distinctly
segmented, setae at base absent.
Host: An unidentified plant.
Holotype: A pupal case mounted on slide,
on an unidentified plant, India: Tamil Nadu:
Karaiyar Dam (Papanasam), 14.iv.1993. Coll:
P.M.M. David (No. 180.A.).
Etymology: This species is named after the
author’s son D. Sheryl who often accompanied
him during the survey.
126
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NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Fig. 2: Shanthiniae sheiyli gen. et sp. nov. : A. pupal case; B. thoracic tracheal comb;
C. section of margin and submargin; D. disc pore and porette; E. vasiform orifice; F. dorsal markings.
Genus Vasantharajiella gen. nov.
Type-species: Vasantharajiella kalakadensis
sp. nov.
Pupal case oval, jet black in colour; margin
lobulate; tracheal combs distinct; submargin
separated from the dorsal disc by a distinct
furrow not interrupted even at caudal region;
marginal setae absent; submarginal setae
present; first abdominal setae absent; transverse
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127
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
moulting suture reaching submarginal furrow;
median area of abdominal segments tuberculate;
rachis on cephalothorax and abdomen present;
vasiform orifice much smaller compared with
its body size, subcordate, wider than long;
operculum of similar shape, filling half the
orifice, concealing lingula.
Diagnosis: The genus differs from such
genera of Aleurolodini as Aleuropapillatus Regu
& David, Aleurolobus Quaintance & Baker,
Africaleurodes Dozier, and Asterochiton
Masked in the presence of complete submargin
all around the case, without interruption even
in the caudal region. Though it resembles the
rest of the genera in the presence of the complete
submargin, it is clearly distinguished from them
by several characters. It is distinct from
Crescentaleyrodes David & Jesudasan in the
presence of thoracic and caudal tracheal combs
and in the absence of a row of crescent-shaped
pores in the submargin. Absence of first
abdominal setae and a pouch-like structure at
the thoracic and caudal tracheal comb area
separate Vasantharajiella from Rositaleyrodes
Meganathan & David. Oriental eyr odes David
possesses very long hair-like submarginal setae,
comparatively shorter median length of
abdominal segment VII, much larger (80 x 75 pm)
elevated vasiform orifice located only about its
length from the posterior body margin. On the
other hand, Vasantharajiella has minute
submarginal setae, well defined rachis on
cephalothorax and abdomen, equally long
abdominal segment VII and, compared to the
body size, much smaller (24.8 x 34.1 pm), non-
elevated, vasiform orifice located about 10
times its length from posterior body margin.
The genus also differs from all these genera
in lacking anterior and posterior marginal
setae.
Etymology: Named in honour of Dr. B.
Vasantharaj David, Director, Jai Research
Foundation, Valvada, Gujarat, as a mark of
respect.
Vasantharajiella kalakadensis gen. et sp. nov.
(Fig. 3)
Pupal case: Jet black in colour, surrounded
by a thick fringe of white waxy filaments;
powdery wax deposits on dorsal sutures and
submarginal lines. Living on the upper surface
of leaves. 1.82-1.86 mm long and 1.46-1.54 mm
wide; widest across abdominal segments II-IV.
Margin: Lobulate, 10-11 lobulations mO.l
mm width of margin; teeth each as long as wide.
Margin at tracheal pore area slightly indented.
Tracheal combs distinct; about 6 teeth at pore
area larger than other teeth, with incisions in
between teeth deeper than those in between other
teeth. Anterior and posterior marginal setae not
discernible in available specimens.
Dorsum: Submargin characteristic;
complete without any interruption even at caudal
region; separated from dorsal disc by a well
defined furrow gradually widening caudad;
approximately ‘A the width of dorsal disc across
the greatest width of body. Submarginal ridges
and furrows distinct. A row of faint papillae-like
markings evident. Submarginal setae in 1 3 pairs
arranged in 2 rows: 4 pairs in outer submargin
(2 pairs at cephalic end, one just posterior to
thoracic tracheal furrow, one opposite abdominal
segment I) and 9 pairs in inner submargin (3
pairs anteriad of and 6 pairs posteriad of thoracic
tracheal furrow) 12.4-24.8 pm long, their bases
porous, setae tapered, apices acute. Cephalic
setae 15.5 pm long. First abdominal setae absent.
Eighth abdominal setae 9.3-15.5 pm long,
located laterad of top of vasiform orifice on a
conspicuous ridge, their apices pointing towards
orifice. Caudal setae 18.6 pm long, located on
outer submargin anterior to the lateral tooth of
tracheal comb. Longitudinal transverse moulting
suture reaching margin. Transverse moulting
suture curved caudad from its midpoint, recurved
cephalad, terminating at submarginal furrow
opposite meso-metathoracic suture. Segmenta-
tion well defined in submedian area. Median
length of abdominal segments I-VI equal and of
128
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1) APR. 2000
NE W DESCRIPTIONS
Fig. 3: Vasantharajiella kalakkadensis gen. et sp. nov.: A. pupal case; B. thoracic tracheal comb;
C. margin; D. disc pore and porette; E. vasiform orifice; F. submarginal seta
VII shorter than that of other segments. Median
area of abdominal segments I- VIII finely
tubereulate. Rachis on cephalothorax and
abdomen characteristic; promesothoracic suture
bifurcated, each curved cephalad and caudad,
recurving mesad with chain-like designs all
along in subdorsal area; meso-metathoracic
suture bifurcated. A somewhat transverse rachis
laterad of meso-metathoracic suture; abdominal
rachis III- VII each bifurcated, finger-like in inner
subdorsum with chain-like designs along sutures;
minute striations inside abdominal rachis. Disc
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000
129
NE W DESCRIPTIONS
pores and porettes in a row on central submargin,
in groups of 2-3 in a row each on outer
subdorsum and on submedian area. Submedian
depressions distinct on thoracic and abdominal
segments. Pockets on abdominal segment VII
inconspicuous.
Vasiform orifice very small, subcordate,
located about twice its length from posterior
suture and 1 0 times its length from body margin;
wider than long, 24.8 pm long and 34. 1 pm wide;
its top straight, less sclerotized; sides prominent.
Operculum of similar shape; longer than wide,
12.4 pm long and 27.9 pm wide, filling about
half the orifice. Lingula concealed. Caudal
furrow indicated by shallow depressions. Caudal
ridges distinct anterior to submarginal furrow and
laterad of vasiform orifice.
Venter: Tassellated. Thoracic tracheal fold
marked up to submarginal line, then indicated
by minute stipples; caudal fold distinct; stipples
up to central submargin. All spiracles evident.
Ventral abdominal setae 46.5 pm long, 31.0 pm
apart. A minute seta at base of mesothoracic legs,
their tips with a finger-like projection.
Host: An unidentified woody climber.
Holotype: Pupal case mounted on slide,
on an undetermined climber, rNDiA; Tamil Nadu:
Kalakad forest, 5. i. 1993. Coll: P.M.M. David
(No. 208.4).
Paratypes: 1 1 specimens on slides bearing
the same collection data as of holotype.
Etymology: Derived from the collection
site, Kalakad forest.
Types Depository: The holotypes are
deposited with the Division of Entomology,
Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa
Campus, New Delhi. The paratypes of M. rubicie
and V. kalakadensis are available with the Centre
for Advanced Studies in Agricultural
Entomology, TNAU, Coimbatore; with Dr. B.V.
David, Director, Jai Research Foundation, Vapi;
and with the Department of Entomology, Natural
History Museum, London.
Acknowledgements
The author is grateful to Dr. M.
Mohanasundaram, Professor of Agricultural
Entomology (Retd.), Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore, for suggesting the
problem and for guidance throughout the
investigations, and to Dr. B. Vasantharaj David,
Director, Jai Research Foundation, Valvada,
Gujarat, for confirming the identity of the
species, valuable suggestions and providing
reprints.
130
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 97(1) APR. 2000
L YSIONOTUS PALINENSIS — A NEW SPECIES OF GESNERIACEAE FROM
ARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA1
G.D. Pal2
( With one text-figure)
Key words: Lysionotus palinensis, new species, Arunachal Pradesh.
During plant exploration in the district of Lower Subansiri, Arunachal Pradesh, an
interesting species of the genus Lysionotus D. Don was collected. A critical study, based
on the regional herbarium specimens of allied species and literature on species of Lysionotus
D. Don, has proved it to be quite distinct from all known species and is described. Line
drawings are provided.
Lysionotus palinensis G.D. Pal sp. nov.
(Figs. : A-D)
Lysionotus serrato D. Don affinis, sed
differt foliis lanceolatis ad lineari-lanceolatis, ad
marginum spinulosis crenato-serratis coriaceis,
pedunculis 3-7 cm longis, calieis lobis
lanceolatis, 0. 9-1.0 x 0. 1-0.2 cm, cuspidato-
acuminatis, 4-6 nervatis.
Typus: Holotypus lectus a G.D. Pal ad
locum Arunachal, Inferior Subansiri district,
Palin c. 1400 m, dia 9.ix.l983, subnumero 400,
ex positus in CAL.
Shrubby herbs, 30-40 cm tall, usually
unbranched, rooting at the lower nodes. Stems
terete or faintly ridged, pubescent above. Leaves
ternate, sometimes basal leaves opposite,
lanceolate to narrowly lanceolate, 3-7 x 0. 5-2.0
cm, cuneate or rounded at base, acuminate,
spinulous crenate-serrate at margin, glabrous,
coriaceous; young leaves hairy on nerves
underneath, pale gren underneath; lateral nerves
4-6 pairs; petioles 0.2-0. 3 cm long, hairy.
Inflorescence laxly cymose many flowered;
peduncles 3-7 cm long, terete, wiry, glabrous or
sparsely pubescent; bracts ovate-lanceolate, 0.5-
0.6 x 0.3-0.35 cm, acuminate, 3-nerved; pedicels
0.5-1 .0 cm long, wiry, glabrous. Flowers bluish-
purple; calyx lobes lanceolate, 0.9- 1.0 x 0.1 -0.2
'Accepted December, 1998.
:Botanica1 Survey of India, Arunachal Field Station
ltanagar791 111, Arunachal Pradesh, India.
cm, caudate-acuminate, 4-6 nerved, purple;
corolla tubular, broad at middle, 4. 0-4. 5 x 0.8-
1.0 cm, distinctly nerved within, reticulate at
throat; upper lip 0.8 cm longer than lower lip.
3-lobed; middle lobes oblong to sub orbicular,
about 0.8 x 0.6 cm, obtuse; lower lip shorter,
truncate; stamens 2, fertile; filaments 0.8-1 .0 cm
long, flattened; anthers connivent; ovary oblong,
0.2 cm long; styles slender, 2. 0-2. 3 cm long,
unevenly thickened. Capsules not seen.
FI.: August-September.
Remarks: Grows in moist shaded places
of subtropical primary forests on humus rich soil
associated with Impatiens, Begonia spp.
Distribution: India: Arunachal Pradesh,
Lower Subansiri dist . , Palin c. 1400 m,
9.ix.l983; G.D. Pal 400 (Holotype- CAL)
Note: The new species is closely allied to
L. servants D. Don, but can be differentiated by:
leaves lanceolate to linear-lanceolate; spinulous
crenate-serrate at margin, coriaceous; peduncles
3-7 cm long; calyx-lobes lanceolate, 0.9- 1.0 x
0.1 -0.2 cm, cuspidate-acuminate, 4-6 nerved.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to the Director, Botanical
Survey of India, Calcutta for facilities. I also thank
Dr N.C. Majumder, ex Scientist SE, Botanical
Survey of India, Calcutta for the la tin diagnosis of
the taxon and Dr G.S. Giri, Scientist SE, Central
National Herbarium, Howrah for sketches.
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
131
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Figl. A-D: Lysionotus palinensis sp. nov., A. Habit; B. Corolla split open; C. Anther;
D.Gynaecium with calyx.
132
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1) APR. 2000
REVIEWS
1. BIRDS OF NEPAL: FIELD ECOLOGY, NATURAL HISTORY AND
CONSERVATION, by Tej Kumar Shrestha. Published by Mrs. Bimal Shrestha,
Kathmandu, Nepal. 2000. Pp 287, (21 x 14 cm). Price not mentioned.
Prof. Tej Kumar Shrestha of Nepal is a
prolific writer on natural history. As the jacket
of his latest book birds of nepal claims, he is the
author of the book the spiny babbler: an endemic
bird of nepal, and other “eleven outstanding
books on wildlife and natural resources”.
However, his books (I have read three) lack
scientific accuracy and the high standard
expected from a professor with a D.Sc. degree.
While the quality of printing of the present book
is much better than his earlier books, the
language is pedantic and needs proper editing.
There are too many editorial mistakes to be
enumerated in this brief review.
The book claims to be a photographic field
guide. There is a chapter on bird photography,
(Bird-watching and Field Craft, pp. 30-38) which
shows Prof. Shrestha with his various cameras,
but many of the pictures are taken in zoos (e.g.
plates 10-13, 17-22, 46-47, 52-53, 69), some
pictures are of trapped birds (e.g. coot, Baillon’s
crake and Indian moorhen, plate 89, painted
snipe, plate 93), and some even of mounted
specimens (plates 31-32). The flight pictures on
plates 33, 34 and 35 are quite interesting, and
some close-ups are sharp. I particularly liked the
picture of the jungle myna (plate 36). Another
interesting picture is that of a male magpie robin
(not foster mother as claimed in the caption)
feeding a juvenile cuckoo (plate 70).
More than 250 species have been depicted
in 144 colour plates and many in black & white,
but identification pointers are not given in the
captions. Moreover, arrangement of bird pictures
is arbitrary, so to find a particular species is not
easy. The most ill-conceived aspect of this book
is the checklist. The author enigmatically starts
his checklist with the spiny babbler Turdoides
nipcilensis, a species on which he has done his
Ph.D. Since the publication of Sibley & Monroe’s
new classification based on DNA finger printing,
there is already confusion in the classification
of birds. Prof. Shrestha’s book will further add
to this confusion. Strangely, he has not given
any valid reason for adopting his own
classification.
The book covers a wide spectrum of
subjects from ‘Ornithography of Nepal’ to ‘Birds
in Nepalese Literature’. Despite its many
drawbacks, it is an interesting book for
ornithologists and conservationists of the Indian
subcontinent because birds face the same
conservation problems all over South Asia. The
type of trapping methods described by Prof.
Shrestha in his book are also used in India.
Similarly, the reasons for trapping birds (and
other wildlife) and the modus operandi of
trappers/traders in Nepal are the same as in India.
Nepal is becoming the main conduit for
smuggling of birds to European and Middle East
markets. If this book creates awareness, this
special third millennium edition would serve its
stated puipose “to conserve environment and the
health of people in the approaching millennium”.
■ ASAD R. RAHMANI
2. BIOGEOGRAPHY OF THE REPTILES OF SOUTH ASIA by Indraneil Das,
Kreiger Publishing Co., Malabar, Florida, 1996, pp. 87 + xxxvi colour plates,
(24.5 x 16.6 cm). Price not mentioned.
As the title suggests, this book is a The practice of displaying colour plates at
compilation of different aspects of geographical the very beginning of the book, though not
distribution of reptiles of the South Asian region, common, catches the reader’s attention. All the
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
133
REVIEWS
plates are of exemplary quality. The Montane
trinket snake ( Elaphe Helena montico Haris), on
the cover is excellent.
The author, at the outset, acknowledges the
treatises of Smith (1931; 1935; 1943) (P. 1) to
be ultimate sources of identifying the
Subcontinent’s reptilian fauna. He also admits
drawing on the biogeographic analysis of
individual countries by various workers as
sources for data regarding distribution, yet does
not ‘necessarily’ agree with them on the
‘interpretation’ of their findings.
The author has devoted an entire chapter
to apprise the reader of the methods used in his
analysis. He also points out that the status of
nomenclature and species reallocation is in great
turmoil and uncertainty. Thus, it is safe to assume
that a more exhaustive study comprising of valid
names, distribution and species reallocation is
to follow.
The descriptions of the physiographic
zones within the South Asian region, first from
the physical and biological point of view and then
solely on the basis of faunal characteristics like
biodiversity and endemicity, are very informative
and give a detailed view of the South Asian region.
The results obtained and subsequent
discussions on (a) Biodiversity and Endemicity
(b) Faunal characteristics of physiographic zones
(c) Patterns and correlates of diversity (d)
Affinities between physiographic zones (e)
Affinities with extralimital fauna (f) Barriers and
speciation (g) Disjunct distribution of taxa, are
written in a lucid style.
A map is used in Chapter 3 to depict the
physiographic zones. A tree-diagram effectively
explains the affinities between physiographic
zones. Graphs have been used to interpret or
express certain data. The presence of a map and
graphs depicting the physiographic zones makes
it easier to visualise the explanation given. These
aids make the initial chapters very informative
and interesting.
The analysis is complete, but a $ the author
himself points out, the checklist can be the basis
of a more exhaustive study owing to the
instability of the taxonomic arrangements and
interpretation.
■ MEGHANA GAVAND
3 . MOSSES OF KHANDALA AND MAHAB ALESHWAR IN THE WESTERN
GHATS (INDIA) by G.T. Debhade, Published by A.S. Dalvi, Thane, 1998.
Pp. iv + 193, (25 x 18.5 cm). Hardbound price Rs. 800/-, $ (US) 40.
The mosses and in fact the entire group of
Bryophytes are neglected, though they have an
important bearing on the evolutionary history of
the plant kingdom. The very fact that the
bryophytes represent the transitional zone
between the amphibian and the terrestrial habit,
and that they may, perhaps, be the base in the
origin and the organisation of the reproductive
machinery of other plant groups from
pteriodophytes to angiosperms, explains the
importance of the Bryophyta in comparative
morphology, ecology and phylogeny. Inspite of
the academic importance and even economic
value, the group remains neglected and it is in
this context that this publication becomes
significant.
The work, though confined to a certain
region of the Western Ghats, is of value in the
identification of many mosses in the entire
Western Ghats. The author has painstakingly
made field collections and described them, giving
information on characters of diagnostic value,
with particular reference to the capsule and even
the spores at times. Altogether, 87 species under
48 genera and 27 families have been covered.
The general introduction, the review of
previous work and the scope of the present work,
together with the table containing salient
134
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1) APR. 2000
REVIEWS
information on the concerned taxa, give valuable
information on phytogeography and ecology
of the mosses in South India. The author has
given information on the physiographic, edaphic
and environmental conditions of the areas
covered by the present study, followed by an
account of methodology of collection,
preservation and identification, including
preparation of permanent slides of the whole
plants and their parts, including spores. The
morphological analysis, both mega and micro-
characters, provides a picture of the thoroughness
and depth of research that the author has carried
out.
The descriptions are followed by a general
analysis of various aspects of the study which,
perhaps, is the best part of the publication. The
information on habitat shows the location-
specific occurrence of mosses on calcareous,
lateritic, or peaty soils, and such information is
of immense environmental importance for using
mosses as bio-indicators. Further, information
on moss sociology is in fact a reflection of
biodiversity combinations in various micro-
ecosystems. The account on geographical
distribution gives very useful data on the
abundance or rarity of various taxa. The finding
of a large number of endemic species in the
restricted area of Khandala and Mahabaleshwar
should receive conservative attention to help save
these species from extinction. The concluding
sentence “As we go south, more and more humid
species begin to appear and as. one goes
northwards, drier species are met with” holds
good for the Western Ghats of India as a whole.
It is my considered opinion that the work
is of high academic merit and a useful reference
book for field botanists working with mosses.
■ P.K.K. NAIR
JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1), APR. 2000
135
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
1 . INSTANCES OF FRUIT BAT MOBBING THE BARN OWL
On the night of September 16, 1997, my
family and I were watching the total lunar eclipse
from our terrace garden at Sion, Mumbai. A pair
of bam owls (Tyto alba), which were nesting in
the rafters of the building next to our house, had
the habit of perching on a tree opposite our house.
The canopy of the tree was at eye level from our
terrace garden on the 3rd floor. Fruit bats or
Indian flying foxes (Pteropus giganteus)
regularly fly all around the area, coming in large
numbers mainly from their huge roosting sites
at Five Gardens, Dadar, Mumbai.
As we watched, a bat started mobbing one
of the owls perched on the topmost branch. The
owl immediately ducked and turned its face
nearly upside down to look at the attacker. At
the same time its mate, which was sitting on a
lower branch, gave a loud squawk of protest. The
bat then wheeled around and once again came
to mob the first bird which ducked out of danger.
The owl refused to fly away or move down to the
lower branches. This went on for about 10
minutes wherein 1 7 attempts were made by the
bat, out of which about 12 resulted in contact.
At least 5 times the bird was nearly dislodged
from its perch. We could clearly see that all the
mobbing by the bat was done with its wings. All
the time both the birds were calling regularly.
The second bird then took off and sat on
an adjacent tree, while the first bird was still
perched in its original place. A few minutes after
the second bird left, the bat was joined by three
others, and all four started mobbing the first bird.
The second bird then started screeching and flew
over its mate in an attempt to protect it. The first
bird then gathered enough courage to fly off to
its roosting place in the rafters of the next
building.
It was amazing that, inspite of such
continuous mobbing, the owl which was being
mobbed rarely flew off, and its only evasive action
was to duck. The bird flew away only when its
mate came to help, or when the mobbing became
unbearable. I am quite sure that both the birds
were adults, not a protective parent and its
offspring.
It was lovely to see this drama as well as
the total lunar eclipse. Instances like these have
been regularly sighted by us, at least once a week,
even to the date of writing this note.
ACKNOW LEDG EM ENT
I am grateful to Dr. A.R. Rahmani,
Director, Bombay Natural History Society, for
his guidance, help and valuable suggestions.
March 2, 1 998 SUNIL R. ZAVERI
Arham, Top Floor,
Plot No. 266, Sion (East),
Mumbai 400 022,
Maharashtra . India.
2. POSSIBLE OCCURRENCE OF THE LESSER WOOLLY HORSESHOE
BAT (RHINOLOPHUS BEDDOMEI) IN CHINNAR WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
During a short visit to Chinnar Wildlife
Sanctuary, Kerala, in October 1997, some
members of my group found a black bat hanging
from the doorway of a building at the Chinnar
checkpost one evening. The surrounding habitat
included riparian gallery forest and light
deciduous forest. Judging from the appearance
of its face, the bat appeared to be insectivorous,
equipped with echolocating apparatus. For a
microchiropteran, it was a large animal, and
appeared black overall. The next morning, it was
found roosting alone in a dark corner near the
ceiling of the same building.
Using BATS OF THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT by
Paul Bates and David Harrison, I tentatively
identified the bat as Rhinolophus beddomei , the
136
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 97ft} APR. 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
lesser woolly horseshoe bat, on the basis of its
large size, colour, habitat and solitary occurrence.
I had an occasion to visit Chinnar again
in June 1998. 1 found a bat, presumably the same
individual, roosting at the same place as it had
been doing nine months earlier. Even with a
moderately bright torch, no further details could
be noted to ascertain its identity. I was, however,
able to photograph it using a flash this time.
The photograph strengthens the
impression that the bat is indeed a lesser woolly
horseshoe bat. The animal is seen to be hanging
by one leg, which is a habit characteristic of that
species. Further, Dr. Paul Bates, who studied this
picture wrote that he thought it was Rhinolophus
beddomei.
The lesser woolly horseshoe bat is endemic
to peninsular India and Sri Lanka. In Kerala, it
has hitherto been recorded from Wynaad,
Tellicherry, Trichur district and Palghat. This
report constitutes a possible new record of a
species which has been described as very
vulnerable to habitat destruction on account of
low density populations and forest dependency.
On a later visit to the same place in
February 1999, 1 could not find any bat.
March 23, 1999 KUMARAN SATHASIVAM
29 Jadamuni Koil Street,
Madurai 625 001,
Tamil Nadu ,
India.
3. DEAD SNOW LEOPARD UNCI A UNCI A AT YABUK,
DONGKUNG (5500M) IN NORTH SIKKIM
Snow leopard Uncia uncia is protected in
Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act,
1972 as amended upto 1998. There are almost no
recent sight records of this rare big cat from
Sikkim, the last being a cub from Sebu La region
in Lashar valley, north Sikkim. The male cub
‘Shebu’ survived for less than a year in captivity
in Gangtok in 1993-1994. There has been no
study so far on its present status in Sikkim.
On November 18, 1998, a Tibetan grazier
or ‘dokpa’ was attracted by a hovering raven
while grazing his yaks at Yabuk (c. 5500m), a
rocky place about 2 km above Dongkung, at the
foot of Chomiomo peak on the Chho Lhamo
Plateau. Upon investigating, he saw what he
thought was a sleeping, probably sick, snow
leopard in the grass at the base of some large
boulders. Sensing something was wrong, he
drove away the raven and went closer. He found
it was an adult male snow leopard lying dead in
sleeping posture. The spot was very isolated and
intending to return the next day to collect the
specimen to bring down to me in Gangtok, he
went back to his camp.
Unfortunately feral dogs discovered the
carcass. The next day, most of the softer parts,
the internal organs and the ribs had been
eaten away. The grazier collected the remains.
Almost in the same sleeping posture, most
of the carcass except the head and shoulders
dried naturally in the cold of this desert area.
Six months later, on May 16, 1999, he brought
the remains down to Gangtok in a highly
decomposed state and deposited them in the
Wildlife Circle of the Department of Forests,
Environment & Wildlife. The heat accele-
rated putrefaction and we tried to save the
specimen as much as possible by skinning.
On examining the jaws of the snow leopard, we
saw that the upper left canine was missing, as
was one incisor in the upper jaw. The other
teeth were also worn out and yellow: The claws
were blunt. The front pad in the pug measured
8.5 cm and the hind, 8 cm. The tail mea-
sured 92 cm and had a diameter of c. 13 cm.
The bones were buried in the ground to remove
the tissue. They were later cleaned and measured
(Table 1).
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
137
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Table 1
SKULL MEASUREMENTS OF SNOW LEOPARD (IN MM)
Total length
171
Condylobasal length
145
Zygomatic width
122.5
Post Orbital Width
44.9
Inter Orbital Width
40
Maxillary Width
72.5
Mandibular Length
115.2
Upper jaw
Lower jaw
Premolar 4
13.88
16.1
Molar 1
21.25
16.15
The ‘dokpa’ grazier had two previous
sightings of snow leopard in this area. On July
27, 1998 it was sighted at Dongkung. It was last
seen alive at Yabuk on September 10, 1998. He
also recorded sightings of upto 30 blue sheep
Pseudois nayaur in this area. Around 1 100 yak
and 2000 sheep belonging to 1 8 ‘dokpa’ families
also use the area.
Feral dogs have long infested the entire
area where this animal was found. These dogs
were brought to the Tibetan plateau as pups from
lower altitudes by the army jawans for company.
On finishing their stint in this ‘difficult area’ all
the dogs were abandoned. These have since bred
with the local Tibetan mastiff and multiplied by
feeding off the kitchen wastes of the army camps.
Today these feral dogs roam in packs on the
plateau, living off marmots, woolly hare, Tibetan
gazelle, blue sheep, young nayan and kiang as
also domestic sheep, goats and young yak
including those animals which have been lamed
by landmines. Usually nothing is done to control
their number. Needless to say, pure breed of
Tibetan mastiff, which is a master herder, also
seems to have been irretrievably lost. It is difficult
to quantify the feral dog population as the entire
area, though under the jurisdiction of the
Department of F. E. & WL, is under defence
control, where civilian activities are severely and
actively restricted.
All wildlife and domestic livestock on the
Tibetan plateau of Sikkim are under severe stress
due to various defence priorities. This area,
known as the Chho Lhamo plateau, is perhaps
the only one in the entire eastern and central
Himalayas to have breeding populations of
endangered species such as the southern kiang
Equus kiang polyodon, lynx Lynx lynx and
blacknecked crane Grus nigricollis, .in addition
to snow leopard — all listed in Schedule I of the
Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act. The richness
of the region has prompted the State Wildlife
Advisory Board to propose its recognition as a
cold desert protected area.
July 27, 1 999 USHA GANGULI-LACHUNGPA
Department of Forest,
Environment & Wildlife,
Government of Sikkim,
Deorali 737 102,
Sikkim, India.
4. ON THE LONGEVITY OF THE TIGER (. PANTHERA TIGRIS) IN CAPTIVITY
A white tigress named Diana-Subhra born
at the National Zoological Park, New Delhi, on
June 6, 1977, was received at the Nandankanan
Zoological Park, Bhubaneswar, Orissa, on
December 28, 1979. She died on February 28,
1999, after remaining 21 years, 8 months and
22 days in captivity.
The tigress was housed in an open-air
enclosure with suitable vegetation. The enclosure
had a set of retiring cells with cemented floor
for protection from extreme weather conditions
and for feeding. She was fed with 14 kg of fresh
raw beef with bones six days in a week.
Intermittently, vitamin supplements were added
to the beef. She was usually caged with her mate
or her cubs.
During her lifetime in the park, she was
paired with two tigers (one heterozygous normal
coloured “Deepak” and one white “Debabrata”)
and she gave birth to 16 cubs (6 males and 10
138
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
females) in six litters, including three
heterozygous normal coloured female cubs. The
first litter was born on May 12, 1981 and the
sixth litter on April 23, 1990.
According to Roychoudhury et al. (1989),
the two white tigresses Mohini and Chameli born
at Govindgarh Palace, Rewa on October 30,
1958, and March 24, 1962, died at Washington
Zoo (U.S.A.) on April 6, 1979, and at Bristol
Zoo (England) on August 23, 1982, at the age of
20 years, 5 months, 7 days and 20 years and 5
months respectively. A female Bengal tiger at
the New York Zoological Park died at the age of
20 years, 7 months and 2 days (Crandall, 1965).
A tigress of Alipore Zoological Gardens, Calcutta
lived for 20 years and 3 months (Das, 1983).
Under zoo conditions, the maximum longevity
of tigers is 20 years, an age which is probably
not exceeded in the wild (Schaller, 1967). The
estimated life span of the tiger is about 20 years
(Prater, 1971). Tigers have lived in captivity for
12 to 19 years (Walker et al. , 1964).
Flower (1931) says that there appears to
be no definite record of a tiger living to 20 years
and the greatest longevity listed by him is that of
a Siberian tiger that lived for 19 years in the
Refer
Acharjyo, L.N. & S.K. Patnaik (1987): A note on the
longevity of the tiger (Panthera tigris) in captivity,
Pranikee, 8: 77-78.
Crandall, Lee S. (1965): The management of wild
mammals in captivity. The University of Chicago
Press, Chicago and London, pp. 735.
Das, A.K. (1983): Longevity record of Indian tiger,
Pcinthera tigris tigris Linn, in captivity. Jour. Beng.
nat. Hist. Soc. 2(1): N.S.pp.: 92-93.
Flower, S.S. (1931): Cited by Crandall Lee S. 1965.
Nair, Kesavan R. (1965): Cited by Crandall Lee S.,
1965.
Cologne Zoological Gardens. A tigress had lived
for 19 years in the Zoological Gardens, Thnssur
(Nair, 1957). A tiger of Nandankanan Zoological
Park, Bhubaneswar died at the age of 1 8 years, 6
months and 10 days (Acharjyo and Patnaik,
1987).
Diana-Subhra’s longevity of 21 years, 8
months and 22 days in this Park appears to be
the longest so far recorded for this species in
captivity.
September 9, 1999 L.N. ACHARJYO
House No. M-71,
Housing Board Colony,
Baramunda,
Bhubaneswar 75 1 003
Orissa, India.
B.C. PRUSTY
Nandankanan Zoological Park
Mayur Bhavan, Janapath,
Saheednagcir, Bhubaneswar 751 007,
Orissa, India.
S.K. PATNAIK
7. Saheednagcir,
Bhubaneswar 751 007,
Orissa, India.
ENCES
Prater, S.H. (1971): The Book of Indian Animals, 3rd
edn., Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai,
pp. 65-66.
Roychoudhury, A.K., G.C. Banerjee & R. Poddar ( 1 989):
Studbook of white Tigers (Panthera tigris tigris
Linn.) in India. Bose Institute, Calcutta.
Schaller, G.B. (1967): The Deer and the Tiger. The
University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London,
pp. 221-307.
Walker, Ernest P., Florence Warnick. Kenneth I. Lange
e't al. (1964): Mammals of the World, Vol. II, The
John Hopkins Press, Baltimore pp. 1 279.
5. SIGHTING OF BARKING DEER (MUNTIACUS MUNTJAC) IN
KALAKAD-MUNDANTHURAI TIGER RESERVE, TAMIL NADU
As part of our biodiversity studies, we were Reserve in Tirunelveli dist., Tamil Nadu. On
surveying the flora and fauna on the Mundanthurai October 15,1 997, the second day of our field work.
Plateau, part of Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger one of us (JR), after completing sampling at three
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
points for quantifying vegetation, moved on to the
next point. Just near the fourth point, the sound of
an animal running and at the same time one of
our assistants shouting Khaleyaad (barking deer
m Tamil) was heard. What one of us (JR) saw was
a reddish brown deer, smaller in size, and
somewhat different from a sambar or a spotted deer.
Since it had antlers we knew it was a male. Our
assistants showed us the place where it had been
resting. It was under a Grewia hirsuta tree with
sparse grass. We went to that site, had a closer
look and found some hairs, which we collected
and sent to the Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra
Dun, for identification.
Back at the field station, we checked the
book of Indian animals (Prater 1971, p. 324). Our
opinion that it could be a barking deer was
confirmed. In addition, the hair sample also
identified it a barking deer. It was really
surprising to have seen a barking deer at
Mundanthurai, as there have been no earlier
records of its presence. Dr. A. J.T. Johnsingh, who
has been working in this area for almost 30 years
has not seen or even heard this deer (pers. comm).
In addition, Dr. S.F. Wesley Sunderraj and one
of us (JJ) have been working in this area since
1984, and have never seen or heard this deer
before. In the past two years in KMTR, we have
not heard or seen this deer. Our assistants, local
Kanm tribals, say that they have seen this deer
thrice near Kodamadi, beyond Servalar dam,
while repairing the road in 1992.
Mundanthurai plateau, covering an area of
c. 60 sq. km, retains mainly dry deciduous and
open scrub forest with grass patches. The altitude
is 204 m above msl. The animal was sighted near
Tambraparni river adjacent to the Deer Valley.
In addition, one of us (JJ) sighted a female
and J. Ronald sighted three, two adults (sex
unidentified) and one yearling barking deer in
the Kadayam range in the northwestern part of
the Reserve.
Our sighting is the first of this deer on
Mundanthurai plateau. We suspect that barking
deer could have moved in from the Kodayam
range which lies further northwest of the Reserve.
More sightings of barking deer are needed to
confirm the new addition of this ungulate species
to the fauna of the Reserve.
July 27, 1 999 JAY ANTI RAY
JUSTUS JOSHUA*
J. RONALD
Wildlife Institute of India
P.O. Box # 18. Chandrabani,
Dehra Dun 248 001,
Uttar Pradesh,
India.
* Present Address :
Gujarat Institute of Desert Ecology
Patwadi Naka,
Bhuj (Kachchh) 370 001,
Gujarat,
India.
6. TYPE SPECIMENS OF MAMMALS IN THE COLLECTIONS OF
THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
The mammalian type specimens present in
the collections of the Bombay Natural History
Society as on June ’99 are included. The Society
has a collection of 18,500 mammal skins and
skulls. Most of the specimens were collected during
the Mammal Survey of India undertaken by the
Society from 1911 to 1928. The present note deals
with the type specimens in the collections. The
collection data has been transcribed from the labels.
Chiroptera
Pteropodidae
Pteropodinae
Cynopterus sphinx gangeticus Andersen,
1910
Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 6: 623
Type: BNHM 1651, cotype , juvenile
female, from “Chanda” (in Maharashtra, western
India) at about 500 ft.
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Date of collection: September 1908
Collector: Major A. Begbie
Measurements: HB-153 mm, HF-17 mm
Current Status: Cynopterus sphinx (Vahl,
1797). Wilson and Reeder (1993).
Chiroptera
Pteropodidae
Pteropodinae
Latidens salimalii Thonglongya 1972.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69: 153
Type: BNHM 1563, holotype from “High
Wavy Mountains, Madura district. South India
at about 2500ft.
Date of Collection: 2 May 1948
(Registration - 1 1 June 1948)
Collector: A. F. Hutton
Current Status: Latidens salimalii
Thonglongya, 1972. Bates and Harrison (1997).
Remarks: Latidens salimalii is endemic
to India.
Chiroptera
Hipposideridae
Hipposideros hypophyllus Kock & Bhat,
1994.
Senckenbergiana biol. 73(1-2) : 25-31
Type: BNHM 18363, paratype , female,
from “Hanumanhalli, Kolar District, Bangalore,
Karnataka, India”.
Date of Collection: 7 March 1985
Collector: H.R. Bhat
Current Status: Hipposideros hypophyllus
Kock & Bhat, 1994. Bates and Harrison (1997).
Carnivora
Felidae
Felinae
Fells libyca Iraki Cheesman, 1921.
Felis ocreata Iraki Cheesman, 1921.
J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc., 27: 331-332
Type: BNHM 5981 .paratype, male, from
“Sheikh Saad” (Iraq).
Date of Collection: 08-12-1916
Collector: Cox & R.E. Cheesman
Current Status: Felis silvestris Schreber,
1775. Wilson and Reeder (1993).
Remarks: Revised by Ragm & Randi
(1986), who included libyca under silvestris .
Snuthers (1983) & Meester etal. (1986) retained
libyca as separate from silvestris.
Artiodactyla
Tragulidae
Tragulus meminna Erxleben, 1777.
Moschus meminna Erxleben, 1777.
Syst. Regn. Anim., Mamm. 322.
Type: BNHM 17180 topotype, female
from “Kissaraing Island” (Mergui Arch.,
Burma).
Date of Collection: 29 September 1921
Collector: C. Primrose
Measurements: HB-370mm, Ear-32 mm,
HF- 115mm, Tail-57mm
Current Status: Moschiola memina
(Erxleben, 1777). Wilson and Reeder (1993).
Artiodactyla
Tragulidae
Tragulus javanicus lampensis , Miller,
1903
Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 16:42
Type:BNHM 17838, topotype , male from
“Sullivan Islands” (Mergui District, Burma).
Date of collection: 5 March 1922
Collector: C. Primrose
Measurements: HB-459mm, Ear-34mm,
HF-1 16mm, Tail-62mm
Current Status: Tragulus javanicus
(Osbeck, 1765). Wilson and Reeder (1993).
June 4, 1 999 MEGHANA GA VAND
NARESH CHATURVEDI
Bombay Natural Histoiy Society,
Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023,
Maharashtra,
India.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
141
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
References
Andersen, K. (1910): New Fruit-bats. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.
6: 623-624.
Bates, Paul J.J. & D.L. Harrison (1997): Bats of the
Indian Subcontinent, pp. 258.
Blandford, W.T. (1888-91): The Fauna of British India,
Mammalia. Taylor and Francis, London 617 pp.
Cheesman, R.E. (1921): Report on the Mammals of
Mesopotamia: Collected by members of the
Mesopotamian expeditionary force, 1915-1919.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 27\ 323-346.
Ellerman, J.R. & T.C.S. Morrison-scott (1951):
Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian Mammals. 810
pp.
Kock, D. & H.R. Bhat (1994): Mammalia : Chiroptera-
Hipposideridae Senckenbergiana biol. 73: 25-3 1 .
Meester, J.A.J., I.L. Rautenbach, N.J. Dippenar & C.M.
Baker (1986): Classification of southern African
mammals. Transvaal Museum Monograph 27: 1 - 14.
Ragni, B. & E. Randi (1986): Multivariate analysis of
carniometric characters in European wild cat,
domestic cat and African wild cat (genus Felis).
Zeitschrift fur Saugetierkunde 51 : 243-25 1 .
Smithers, R.H.N. ( 1 983): The mammals of the Southern
African Subregion. University of Pretoria, Republic
of South Africa, 736 pp.
Thonglongya, K. (1972): A new genus and species of Fruit
Bat from South India (Chiroptera : Pteropodidae).
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69: 151-158.
Wilson, D.E. & D. M. Reeder (1993): Mammal species
of the World. 1207 pp.
7. NIGHT HERONS AND LITTLE CORMORANTS IN THRISSUR, KERALA
Night herons ( Nycticorax nycticorax ) and
little cormorants ( Phalacrocorax niger) are
communal nesting local migrants which usually
build nests in trees that adjoin, or are actually
standing in water bodies. These birds are seen
in Southern India from November to February,
their breeding season. When faced with water
scarcity or disturbance of the nesting grounds,
the birds are known to desert traditional nesting
sites and move to other suitable places. But this
year in Kerala, the birds were spotted in
hundreds, nesting in tall mango and jackfruit
trees in the densely populated Keerankulangara
area of Thrissur town, Kerala. With no large
water body nearby, the birds had to depend on
the nearby ponds, water tanks and even local
markets for their fish. Their cries and the stench
of the droppings have made them a nuisance to
the local residents who are even contemplating
shooting them! The disturbance of their
traditional breeding grounds like Kumaragam
and adjoining areas could be the cause of this
invasion. An inquiry into the cause and a speedy
solution are necessary to ease the problems of
the residents and also ensure the safety of the
birds.
March 30, 1998 LEELA MADHAVAN
Department of Zoology,
Madras Christian College (Autonomous),
Chennai 600 059,
Tamil Nadu, India.
8. GREY HERON WRESTING FISH FROM HERRING GULL
On February 14, 1998, 1 saw something so
unusual that it is worth reporting. Normally it is
gulls that chivvy other birds and deprive them
of their prey. On this occasion, the tables were
effectively turned. My attention was drawn to a
grey heron ( Ardea cinerea ), a herring gull ( Larus
argentatus ) and a gullbilled tern ( Gelochelidon
nilotica) in turmoil. At first I thought the heron
was being harried, but it soon became apparent
that it was the heron who was chasing the gull,
who was being further harried and prevented
from making a getaway by the tern chivvying it
from above. The gull was weighed down by a
fish in its beak. The skirmish continued for
several minutes, the three birds in the air a few
feet above the tidal mud. Finally, the gull let go
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
of the prize and the heron settled to take over
the prize before the gull could turn and retrieve
it. Both the gull and the tern alighted on either
side of the heron to watch it swallow the fish.
March 4, 1 998 LA VKUMAR KHACHER
646, Vastuninnan,
Gandhinagar 382 022,
Gujarat, India.
9. ADDITIONAL SITE RECORDS OF BLACK STORK CICONIA NIGRA (LINN.)
IN ANDHRA PRADESH
Manakadan (1987) reported sighting of
black stork Ciconia nigra (Linn.) near Rollapadu
in Kurnool dist., Andhra Pradesh. As per the
literature available, the distribution of this stork
has not been reported from south of Maharashtra
(Ali and Ripley, 1983) except for ManakadaiTs
report from Andhra Pradesh, Perennou and
Santharam (1990) from Tamil Nadu and Henry
(1971) from Sri Lanka.
We further add that the black stork has
been recorded by us at various places in Andhra
Pradesh on the banks of River Godavari and its
branches in East Godavari dist. A pair was first
sighted along the banks of River Gouthami near
Ravulapalem in Jan. 1987. Subsequently, 4 birds
were recorded near Mandapalli in Dec. 1989; 3
near Kumarajulanka in Dec. 1992 and 6 near
Ravulapalem in Jan. 1995. These additional site
records of black stork from Andhra Pradesh are
worth noting.
Acknowledgements
We thank Prof. J.V. Ramana Rao for
guidance and valuable comments, Dr. B.M.
Parasharya for showing his interest in our
findings and going through the manuscript, and
the Ministry of Environment and Forests,
Government of India, New Delhi for financial
assistance.
March 1 7, 1 998 V. VASUDEVA RAO
V. NAGULU
C. SRINIVASULU
Wildlife Biology Section,
Department of Zoology,
Osmania. University,
Hyderabad 500 007,
Andhra Pradesh,
India.
References
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of
India and Pakistan. Compact Edn. Oxford, Delhi.
Henry, G.M. (1971): A Guide to the Birds of Ceylon.
Oxford University Press, Bombay.
Perennou, C. & V. Santharam ( 1 990): Status of some birds
in southeastern India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
87(2): 306-307.
Manakadan, R. (1987): The Black Stork Ciconia nigra
(Linnaeus) in Kurnool district (Andhra Pradesh).
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(3): 675-676.
10. STEALING OF RED WATTLED LAPWING VANELLUS INDICUS (BODDAERT)
AND YELLOW-WATTLED LAPWING VA NELL US MALABARICUS (BODDAERT)
EGGS BY COWHERDS
During a study on the nesting habits of
the redwattled lapwing Vanellus indicus
(Boddaert) and the yellow-wattled lapwing V.
malabaricus (Boddaert) at Brindavan and its
environs at Kadugodi, located about 22 km from
Bangalore, Karnataka, we observed that one of
the reasons for loss of eggs in these species was
the collection of eggs by cowherds. The local
cowherds were observed searching for lapwing
nests during the dry season. The nests could be
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
143
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
located by observing the parent birds, which
were very vocal. After collection, the eggs were
covered with cowdung, roasted in a fire made
of dry twigs and eaten by the cowherds. Though
other predators like dogs, mongoose, snakes and
foxes were sighted in the nesting area, the
cowherds alone caused a loss of 61% and 8%
eggs of redwattled and yellow-wattled lapwings
respectively, in the 19 and 10 nests observed for
each species.
April 2, 1998 K.V. SRINIVAS
Department of Biosciences (Zoology),
Sri Sathya Sai Institute of Higher Learning,
(Deemed University), Whitefield Campus,
Kadugodi, P.O. Bangalore 560 067
Karnataka, India.
S. SUBRAMANYA
HPHT Scheme, J Block, GKVK,
University of Agricultural Sciences .
Bangalore, Karnataka, India.
1 1 . A NOTE ON THE FEEDING OF LESSER COUCAL ( CENTROPUS TOULOU)
In 1994, 1 had discovered a small breeding
colony of lesser adjutant stork in Kahala village,
about 48 km from Malda, West Bengal. On
March 16, 1997, I was watching a parent bird
feeding a rather large young one by regurgitation.
I saw that some food had slipped to the ground
from the nest. About 10 minutes later, when I
reached the nest to identify that food item, I found
that a lesser coucal Centropus toulou (identified
by its small size and white tipped tail feathers)
was feeding on the same item. In five minutes, it
devoured about l/6lh to l/8lh of the morsel.
Suddenly a village dog approached and the bird
flew away.
On a closer look, the food item was found
to be a fish ( Mastacembelus armatus ). According
to the handbook (Ali and Ripley 1987, Compact
Edn. Oxford University Press, Bombay), the lesser
coucal feeds almost entirely on grasshoppers, so
fish is a new dietary item for this species.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to the anonymous referee for
commenting on an earlier draft and to my friend
Subhasish Sengupta for typing this article.
April 3, 1998 SAMIRAN JHA
Green Peoples India
Pranta Pally,
P.O. & Dist. Malda,
Pin 732 101,
West Bengal,
India.
12. OCCURRENCE OF THE YELLOWBROWED BULBUL HYPSIPETES INDICUS
(JERDON) IN THE NALAMALLA HILLS, ANDHRA PRADESH
The yel lowbrowed bulbul Hypsipetes
indicus (Jerdon) is a common resident of Western
Ghats affecting evergreen biotopes above 900 m
(Ali and Ripley, 1 983) and has been recorded from
the Eastern Ghats first by Taher et al. in 1 990 from
Tirumala Hills (Taher and Pittie, 1 994). Santharam
( 1 992) reported it from Mamandur (Chittoor dist.)
and Karthikeyan (1996, 1 997) at Kolli Hills (Tamil
Nadu). These records indicate that the
yel lowbrowed bulbul is more or less restricted in
distribution to Western Ghats and has been
occasionally reported from southern Eastern Ghats.
We report its occurrence from the Nalamalla Hills
further north from the hitherto reported range in
Eastern Ghats. While birding at Umamahesharam
near Mannanur in Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam
Wildlife Sanctuary (or Rajiv Tiger Reserve),
Mahboobnagar dist. during April 1997, we came
across a pair of yellowbrowed bulbul busily
feeding. The species was easily identified, based
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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1) APR. 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
on its conspicuous olive yellow above and bright
yellow head and underparts. Earlier, we had an
opportunity to observe this species at Periyar
Wildlife Sanctuary (Kerala). This is the first record
of the yel lowbrowed bulbul Hypsipetes indicus
from the Nalamalla Hills in Nagarjunasagar-
Srisailam Wildlife Sanctuary, Andhra Pradesh.
Acknowledgements
We thank Prof. J.V. Ramana Rao, for
constant encouragement in our study. One of us
Refer
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of
India and Pakistan. Compact Edn. Oxford, Delhi.
Karthikeyan, S. ( 1 996): Bird-attracting trees and birds of
Shevaroy and Kolli Hills. Newsletter for
Birdwatchers 36(3): 49-5 1 .
Karthikeyan, S. (1997): Yellowbrowed Bulbul Hypsipetes
indicus (Jerdon) in the Kolli Hills (Tamil Nadu),
(CS) acknowledges the fellowship granted by
CSIR for his doctoral work.
March 17. 1998 C. SRINIVASULU
V. VASUDEVA RAO
Wildlife Biology Section,
Department of Zoology.
Osmania Un ivevsity,
Hyderabad 500 007,
Andhra Pradesh.
India.
ENCES
Eastern Ghats. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 94(3):
570-571.
Santharam, V. (1991 ): Yellowbrowed Bulbul Hypsipetes
indicus (Jerdon) in the Eastern Ghats. ,/. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 88(2): 287-288.
Taher, S.A. & A. Pittie ( 1 994): Additions to “A checklist
of birds of Andhra Pradesh”. Mavura II: 1-5.
13. TERMITE ATTACK ON NEST MATERIAL LEADING TO
DESERTION OF EGGS BY BIRDS
A study was conducted on the nesting
success of the birds at Brindavan and its environs,
located about 22 km east of Bangalore,
Karnataka. One of the factors responsible for the
loss of eggs was found to be abandoning of eggs
by parents subsequent to termite attack on nests
of the singing bush lark Mirafra cantillans Blyth.
blackbellied finch- lark Eremopterix grisea
(Scopoli); pied bush chat Saxicola caprata
(Linn.), and the large pied wagtail, Motacilla
maderaspatensis Gmelin. In all these birds, the
termites destroyed nest material, as a result of
which the eggs were buried in the encrusted mud.
In the case of the singing bush lark and the large
pied wagtail, the nesting parents made an
unsuccessful attempt to incubate half exposed
eggs, but later abandoned the nests. However, in
the case of the blackbellied finch-lark, the parents
continued to incubate the eggs, inspite of the nest
material being attacked by termites. The nestlings
were present in the nests and were being fed by
their parents. Termite attack on nest material
leading to desertion of eggs has not been reported
earlier.
April 2, 1998 K.V. SRINIVAS
Department of Biosciences (Zoology),
Sri Sathya Sai Institute of Higher Learning
(Deemed University), Whitefielcl Campus,
Bangalore 560 067 ,
Karnataka, India.
S. SUBRAM ANY A
HPHT Scheme, J Block, GKVK,
University of Agricultural Sciences,
Bangalore
Karnataka, India.
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14. RANGE EXTENSION OF THE PURPLERUMPED SUNBIRD
NECTARINIA ZEYLONICA
While preparing an overview of the birds
of Gujarat for the Dr. Salim Ali Centenary issue
of the JBNHS , I was struck by how very little
qualitative information existed on the natural
history of our region. We really have very
generalised knowledge of bird distributions; it
therefore becomes all the more pertinent to
suggest to friends, particularly those on weekend
birdwatching excursions, to record all the birds
they come across. I have been writing brief notes
on seemingly small observations, which can
indeed change many of our perceptions. We must
be cautious in recording new species and not be
casual about seemingly common-place species.
I have been particularly careful to look at
every sunbird coming my way and in doing so,
have been rewarded with recording a
purplerumped sunbird Nectarinia zeylonica in
Ahmedabad on February 5, 1998. In my overview
I had noted “Salim Ali has only a single
unconfirmed sight record” and had gone on to
suggest that “resident birdwatchers of Vadodara
and Surat may well come across a good many
more”. Unless seen in extremely even light,
sunbirds do not reveal their scintillating colours,
no doubt because the iridescence is due to
refraction of sunlight rather than pigmentation.
For Nectarinia zeylonica Ripley (1982)
sums up: “Range — Peninsular India from Nasik
in a line east to Jabalpur and east to East Pakistan
at Dacca, south in Bombay (sight record for
Panchmahals Dist., Gujarat...) MP., Orissa,
Andhra to Goa, Mysore, Madras and Kerala...”
Ahmedabad is way north of the believed range,
though it is significant that the coastal plains
north of Bombay have no limit indicated and I
suspect this species is commoner than believed
in southern and central Gujarat.
By this note, I would like to convince
amateur birdwatchers to scrutinise the common
birds of their areas. Had I not, for example,
paused to look at a small group of apparently
purple sunbirds N. asiatica at the Centre for
Environment Education (CEE), I would not have
had the pleasure of seeing a bright male
zeylonica. The sunbirds were fluttering under
the shrubbery just outside the window —
agitated perhaps, by some cat or snake. There
were a couple of fully plumaged asiatica males
contrasting nicely with the bird under review.
Significantly, the purplerumped sunbird,
according to Ali (1996) has no well defined
nesting season, but I am tempted to believe that
in the northern parts of its range, breeding
coincides with the flowering of our native trees,
shrubs and climbers as it does with the other
three sunbirds of the genus Nectarinia-. the small
N. minima , the maroonbreasted N. lotenia and
the widespread purple N. asiatica. In conclusion,
in Gujarat we need to keep a watch for minima
and lotenia which, like the purplerumped
sunbird, may be more widespread than hitherto
believed.
March 24, 1 998 LAVKUMAR KHACHER
646, Vastunirman,
Ganghinagar 382 022,
Gujarat, India.
References
Ali, Salim (1996): The Book of Indian Birds, 12th edn. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai, pp. 354
Ripley. S.D. (1982): A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay,
p. 528.
146
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
15. WATER ACQUISITION STRATEGY ADOPTED BY GOLDFINCH
( CARDUELIS CARDUELIS)
Water is an important requisite for survival.
The daily intake of water depends on a wide
range of environmental and physiological
variables (Welty 1982). Grain eating birds gain
little water from their food and are said to have
the greatest need for water (Dorst 1974).
Goldfinch are granivorous and mainly feed on
seeds, especially of thistles ( Carduus spp.),
sunflower ( Helianthus ) and zinnia ( Zinnia ) in
hill station gardens, and seeds of the chenar tree
( Plcitanus orientalis ) in Kashmir (Ali & Ripley
1 983). Thus it has to fulfill its water requirements
by drinking water regularly.
Here I report my observation of goldfinch
eating snow. They were seen on February 24,
1997, at 2800 m above msl, on the southern
boundary of the Kedamath Wildlife Sanctuary
on (30° 30’ N & 79° 15’ E). The Sanctuary
remained snowbound from January to March.
Goldfinch have been reported to be fairly
common in the study area (Green 1985). Seven
goldfinches were observed on a rhododendron
(. Rhododendron arboreum) tree near a frozen
ncilla (forest stream). They were seen feeding on
the seeds of a dead thorny herb ( Mollina
longifolici ) growing nearby. After a while, a few
birds were observed chipping off the snow on
the ground with their beaks and then consuming
it. This method of consuming water in frozen
form has been reported in other species such as
starlings (Allard 1934), pine siskins ( Carduelis
pinus ), redwing ( Turdus iliacus ), blackbird
( Turdus merula) and Bohemian waxwing
(B omby cilia garrulus) (Wolfe 1997).
March 12, 1998 R. SURESH KUMAR
Wildlife Institute of India
P.B. No. 18. Chandrabani,
Dehra Dun 248 001 ,
Uttar Pradesh , India.
References
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of
India and Pakistan. Oxford University Press,
Bombay.
Allard, H.A. (1934): How some birds satisfy thirst.
Science 80: 116-1 17.
Dorst, J. 1974): The Life of Birds. Columbia University
Press, New York. Vol. 1 .
Green, M..I.B. (1985): The birds of the Kedarnath
Sanctuary, Chamoli district. Uttar Pradesh: Status
and distribution. J. Bombay nett. Hist. Soc. 83(3):
603-617.
Wolfe, D.F.G. (1996): Opportunistic winter water
acquisition by Pine Grosbeaks. The Wilson Bulletin.
Vol. 108(J): 186-187.
Welty, J.C. (1982): The life of birds. Saunders College
Publishing, Philadelphia. Third edition.
16. OCCURRENCE OF DRACO OR FLYING LIZARD DRACO DUSSUMIERI IN
CHITTOOR DISTRICT, ANDHRA PRADESH
Two days (August 28-29, 1999) of the first
Bird Banding Training Programme for the
1999-2000 season, organised by the Bombay
Natural History Society (BNHS), were spent in
Talakona Reserve Forest (13°49’ N, 79° 13’ E),
in the Palkonda hills of the Eastern Ghats com-
plex. Talakona is c. 70 km northwest of Tirupati
town in Chittoor dist., Andhra Pradesh. It is part
of the 506 sq. km Sri Venkateshwara National
Park. Within Talakona RF is a 5 sq. km sacred
grove around the temple of Siddeswaraswamy.
A perennial stream, Bugga Vagit, plunges
30 m, forming the Talakona or Papanasanam
Waterfall, into a narrow valley supporting a belt
of semi-evergreen riparian vegetation, along a
length of at least 3 km, which is the distance
from the temple to the waterfall (Anon., 1996).
While returning from an early morning
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000
147
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
birdwatching trek to the waterfall on August 28,
1 999, Aasheesh Pittie sensed a movement among
the trees growing from the valley on his left and
on looking saw a small object floating towards
the trunk of a tree. He wondered whether it was
a flying lizard. The orange coloured patagium
was seen clearly. Before he could focus his bin-
oculars on it, the lizard merged into the bark of
the tree. A few steps ahead, S. Balachandran
pointed out a male draco Draco dussumieri Dum.
& Bibr., on the vertical trunk of an unidentified
tree ( Mangifera indica ?), that grew from the
valley below. The lizard was displaying by erect-
ing a bright yellow flap of skin from the region
of its throat. But for this flash of brilliant colour,
it would have been difficult to spot the draco
against the bark of the tree, as its camouflage
was perfect. We spotted two more lizards while
we stood there. One was on another tree about
5 m away and the other was on the same tree as
the first lizard. All three were at eye level and
we had a good view of them. Three to four liz-
ards were also seen next morning in the same
area. They were photographed and videographed
by other members of the group.
According to Daniel (1983) Draco
dussumieri has a distribution that is “restricted
to southwest India from the hills near
Kanyakumari to the forests of Goa... All other
species of the genus Draco occur in the eastern
Himalayas and further east.” Though the lizard
is listed in the publicity pamphlet on Sri
Venkateshwara NP, brought out by the Andhra
Pradesh Forest Department, this is the first docu-
mentation of its occurrence in the Eastern Ghats,
an interesting record for biogeographers of the
Oriental Region.
AcK.NO WLEDC. EM ENT
We thank J.C. Daniel for encouraging us
to write this note and for critically examining it.
November 4, 1999 S. BALACHANDRAN
Bombay Natural History Society
Hombill House, S. B. Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023,
Maharashtra, India.
AASHEESH PITTIE
8-2-545 Road # 7,
Ban jar a Hills,
Hyderabad 500 034,
Andhra Pradesh,
India.
References
Anon (1996): Sacred and Protected Groves of Andhra Daniel. J.C. (1983): The Book of Indian Reptiles.
Pradesh. World Wide Fund for Nature-India, Bombay Natural History Society. Mumbai.
Andhra Pradesh State Office, Hyderabad, pp 96. pp. x + 141
17. OCCURRENCE OF YELLOW-BELLIED PELAMIS PLATURUS (LINN.),
REPTILIA : HYDROPHIDAE, IN COASTAL WATERS OFF DIGHA,
WEST BENGAL
A specimen of the yellow-bellied sea snake
Pelamis platurus (Linn.) of 235 mm total length
was caught in a dragnet by fishermen off Digha,
West Bengal, from the Bay of Bengal on
September 12, 1998. Although this species is
common in the Indo- Australian seas (Smith,
1943), there is no mention of this species in the
account of Ahmed & Dasgupta (1992), who
listed the reptiles of West Bengal. A brief
description of the specimen is given below:
Pelamis platurus (Linn.)
Anguis platurus Linn. 1766,
Syst. Nat. ed. 12, p. 391.
Material examined: New Digha Ghat,
West Bengal, India; 1 2.ix. 1 998; coll. S. Mitra &
148
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1) APR. 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
S. Ghosh, MARC. Regn. No. 86.
Diagnostic characters: Head narrow,
snout elongated, body much compressed, tail
laterally compressed, scales more or less
hexagonal, 52 scale rows on thickest part of
body, the lowermost rows with two small
tubercles.
Colour: Blackish brown above, ventral
portion bright yellow, a narrow yellow ring just
below head, another two on body. Tail with 10
cream-white stripes.
Acknowledgements
We thank J.R.B. Alfred, Director, Zoological
Survey of India for facilities and S. Ghosh, Digha
Science Centre, for help in collecting the specimen.
September 1, 1999 S. MITRA
J. SARKAR,
T.K. CHATTERJEE
Marine Aquarium & Research Centre
Zoological Survey of India,
Digha, Midnapore 72! 428.
References
Ahmed, S. & G. Dasgupta (1992): Reptilia. In: State
Fauna Series 3. Fauna of West Bengal. Part 2: 1 -
65. Ed. A.K. Ghosh. Zoological Survey of India.
Calcutta.
Smith, M.A. (1943): The Fauna of British India, Ceylon
and Burma, including the whole of the Indo-
Chinese region. Vol. III. Serpentes. Taylor and
Francis. London, xii+583 pp. +1 map.
1 8. A RECORD AUDIO FEAT BY AN ANURAN
While staying in a sanitarium near Igatpuri
(Nashik dist, Maharashtra), in the late summer
of 1993, I came across an interesting, non-stop
audio feat by a frog. Unfortunately at that time, I
could not identify the species, for it was calling
from the middle of a large, extensive waterlogged
patch which was almost inaccessible. But in later
years I came across similar feats, first in August
1998, in the Pune University Campus and
secondly from an inundated ditch atop a hill near
Pune in June 1999. In the second instance I was
able to catch the frog and identified it as the
colourful fungoid frog {Ran a malabarica Bibr.)
In the case of the Igatpuri frog, I first heard
its shrill call on the evening of June 6, 1993.
The previous two days had experienced heavy
rainfall. The frog started calling at about 1745
his on June 6, and kept on calling till the early
hours of the next day. It apparently stopped
calling at about 0730 hrs, when the first rays of
the rising sun reached the spot where it sat. I
carefully listened and monitored the call for the
next three days and arrived at some statistics.
Every night the frog called continuously for
almost 13 hours. The call can be transcribed as
Oo-wak-wak wok! The call always started with
a short and quick Oo followed by quick-repeated
wak. The sound wak was repeated from one to
twenty-six times in one go (average=7). The
interval between two successive call series was just
one or two seconds. On an average, the wak call
was repeated 102 times per minute during the
evening and midnight hours and 83.42 times per
minute during the morning hours (average=-'96).
The total number of times the syllable wak was
uttered throughout the night (about 13 hours) was
calculated to be around 78,000. The small creature
also kept on calling during the daytime, but
intermittently. The estimated day call figure came
to around 18,000. Adding this figure to the night
figure, it can be plainly stated that the frog uttered
the call wak 96,000 times in 24 hours!
Considering the small size of the animal,
this was quite an extraordinary feat!
December 10, 1999 SANJEEV B. NALAVADE
3, Rakhi Apartments, Rambaug Colony,
Paud Road, Kothrud,
Pune 411 038,
Maharashtra, India
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
19. RANGE EXTENSION OF PANGIO GOAENSIS (CYPRINIFORMES :
COBITIDAE) TO THE CHALIYAR DRAINAGE OF KERALA
(With one plate)
The elongate cobitid Cobitis pangia
Hamilton 1822, described originally from
northeastern Bengal, but later recorded also from
Myanmar (Day, 1875-78), was placed in
Acanthophthalmus (van Hasselt 1823) by
Gunther (1868:370). A second species from
India, was described by Tilak (1973) from a
specimen 31.0 mm SL, collected from Golem
river, Goa (15° 20’ N, 74° 16' E). Subsequently,
Menon (1992) in a revision of the Indian
Cobitidae, added another species A. longipinnis
from Kharangpat lake, Manipur, India, bringing
the total number of species of Acanthophthalmus
in India to three. Kottelat (1987), showed that
the genus name Acanthophthalmus was a junior
objective synonym and revived Fangio Blyth
1860, for these fishes. In India, the genus has
until now been recorded only from northeast
Bengal and Goa. Its presence further south in
Kerala is of ichthyological significance.
Pangio goaensis (Tilak 1973)
(Figs. 1 & 2)
Acanthophthalmus goaensis Tilak (1972)
Acanthophthalmus goaensis Menon 1992
Pangio goaensis Menon (1993)
Diagnosis: Pangio goaensis is
distinguished from the other species of Pangio
known from India in having the dorsal fin origin
located between the pelvic and anal fin origins,
by the presence of a fringed flap on the outer
side of each mental lobe, and by the presence of
two longitudinal colour bands on the body (vs.
dorsal fin origin above pelvic fin base in
P. longipinnis ; and no fringed flap on outer side
of mental lobes or longitudinal colour bands on
the body of P. longipinnis or P. pangia ).
Coloration: Ground colour of body (in
alcohol) yellowish; two horizontal lateral bands,
one along mid-lateral extending beyond eyes and
bending to snout tip, one below dorsal running
forward and meeting the band of the other side
across the snout. A predorsal band which is
broken down into spots before dorsal.
Pangio goaensis is so far known only from
the holotype, 31.0 mm SL, from Goa. The
presence of this species in the drainage of the
Chaliyar river, Kerala, extends its range of
distribution to the west-flowing rivers of the
Southern Western Ghats. There is no significant
difference in any of the biometric characters
studied except the length of the fins, which are
observed to be longer than those described by
Tilak (1973), for the holotype; this could be due
to the smaller size of our specimens. The caudal
fin of our specimens is, however, rounded and
not emarginate as in the holotype.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Director, Zoological Survey
of India and the Officer in-Charge, ZSI/SRS,
Dr. P. T. Cherian, for facilities. We also thank
Dr. A. G. K. Menon, Scientist Emeritus, for
critically going through the manuscript.
July 14, 1999 K. REMA DEVI
Zoological Survey of India,
Southern Regional Station,
100, Santhome High Road,
Chennai 600 028,
Tamil Nadu, India.
K. G. EMILIYAMMA
Zoological Survey of India,
Western Ghat Regional Station,
Kerala, India.
R. S. LALMOHAN
Conservation of Nature Trust,
Calicut,
Kerala, India.
150
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(-l) APR. 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
K. Rema Devi et al. : Pangio goaensis
Plate 1
Fig.l. Lateral view of Pangio goaensis, 19.7 & 17.1 mm SL., F. 4493/ZSI/SRS.
-f,K *-
Fig.2. Dorsal view of Pangio goaensis, 19.7 mm SL
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
151
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
References
Blyth, E. (1860): Report on some fishes received chiefly
from the Sitang River and its tributary streams,
Tenasserim Provinces. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 29(2):
138-174.
Day, F. (1875-78): The Fishes of India; being a natural
history of the fishes known to inhabit the seas and
freshwaters of India, Burma and Ceylon. Quaritch,
London. Vol. 1 : text. 778 pp; Vol. 2: Atlas, 198 pi.
Gunther, A. ( 1 868): Catalogue of the fishes in the British
Museum, 7: Catalogue of the Physostonii containing
the families Heteropygii, Cyprinidae, Gonorhynchidae,
Hyodontidae, Osteoglossidae, Clupeidae,
Chirocentridae, Alepocephalidae, Notopteridae,
Halosauridae. British Mus., London, xx + 5 1 2 pp.
Hamilton, F. (1822): An account of the fishes found in the
River Ganges and its branches. Edin. & Lond. vii +
405 pp, 39 pi.
Kottelat, M. (1987): Nomenclatural status offish names
created by J.C. van Hasselt (1823) and of some
cobitoid genera. Japanese J. fchthyol. 33 (4):
368-375.
Menon. A.G.K. (1992): The Fauna of India and Adjacent
Countries, Pisces, Vol. IV(2) Teleostei: Cobitoidea:
Cobitidae, 1 12pp., pis. 1-10, Zoological Survey of
India.
Menon, A.G.K. (1993): Checklist of the Freshwater Fishes
of India. Dept, of Environment & Forests, Govt, of
India.
Tilak, R. ( 1 972): A study of the freshwater and estuarine
fishes of Goa. 1 . Acanthophthalmus goaensis a new
cobitid from Goa, with notes on Zenarchopterus
striga (Blyth). J. Ini. Fish Soc. India 4: 61-68.
van Hasselt, J.C. (1823): Uittreksel uit een’ brief van
Dr J.C. van Hasselt, aan den Heer C.J. Temminck.
Allg. Konst-en Letter-Bode, voor het jar 1 823. 1 , Deel,
(20): 315-317.
20. FISHES OF NAMBIYAR RIVER, KALAKAD-MUNDANTHURAI
TIGER RESERVE, TAMIL NADU
Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve
(KMTR) is located at the southernmost tip of
the Western Ghats. Several streams originate and
drain into the major east-flowing perennial river
Tamiraparani. Johnsingh and Wickram (1987)
reported freshwater fishes from the Kalakad-
Mundanthurai Wildlife Sanctuary with a notable
exception on the Nambiyar river, a separate river
basin with several tributaries in the KMTR.
Documentation is needed due to the threats to
the river system and fish fauna. The present
survey is a study of the fish diversity in the
Western Ghats streams under the Western Ghats
Biodiversity Programme.
Nambiyar river is one of the east-flowing
rivers in Nanguneri taluka, Tirunelveli dist. ,
Tamil Nadu, forming a minor river basin. This
river originates in the eastern slopes of the
Western Ghats at 1650 m above msl in the
Kalakad Reserve Forest. It is drained by two
major tributaries viz., Thamarayar and
Parattaiyar. The 48 km long river flows a distance
of 9.6 km in the hilly regions before it
confluences with the Bay of Bengal. The river
has nine anicuts/weirs (check dams) and 40
wetlands. Due to multiple impoundments along
its course, it reaches the Bay of Bengal only
during monsoon.
Fishes were collected from two sites,
covering upstream and downstream regions in
Nambiyar river, using various mesh sizes of
monofilamentous gill nets, drag nets and scoop
nets. The colour spots and other, important
characters of the catch were noted, and the
specimens preserved in 10% formalin. In larger
specimens, 2-5 ml formalin was injected into the
abdomen.
In Nambiyar river, 14 species of 2 orders,
8 families and 13 genera were recorded (Table
1). All the species are known from the Western
Ghats of South India (Talwar & Jhingran 1991),
however, this is the first report on these fishes
from the Nambiyar river system. Among the
species caught, the air-breathing Channel sp. and
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000
153
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Table 1
FISH SPECIES AND THEIR CURRENT STATUS IN NAMBIYAR RIVER
Fish Species
I Order: Cypriniformes
i. Family: Cyprinidae
a Genus: Pun tins
1 . Punti us arenatus ( Day )
2. Puntius cholo (Ham.-Buch.)
b Genus: Amblypharyngodon
3. Amblypharyngodon microlepis
(Bleeker)
c Genus: Danio
4. Danio aequipinnatus
(McClelland)
d Genus: Esomus
Esomus thennoicos (Val.)
e Genus: Parluciosoma
6. Parluciosoma daniconius
(Ham.-Buch.)
f Genus: Garra
7. Garra mullya (Sykes)
ii Family: Parapsilorhynchidae
g Genus: Nemacheilus
8. Nemacheilus triangularis Day
Current Status
Not assessed
Vulnerable
Not assessed
Low risk, near
threatened
Not assessed
Low risk, neat-
threatened
Not assessed
Not assessed
Low risk, least
concern
Fish Species C urrent Status
iii. Family: Cobitidae
h Genus: Lepidocephalus
9. Lepidocephalus thermalis ( Val . ) Not assessed
II Order: Siluri formes
iv Family: Bagridae
i. Genus: Mystus
10. Mystus armatus (Day) Not assessed
v Family: Aplocheilidae
j Genus: Aplocheilus
1 1 . Aplocheilus lineatus Not assessed
vi Family: C'ichlidae
k Genus: Oreochromis
12. Oreochromis mossambica (Peters) Not assessed
vii Family: Belontiidae
1 Genus: Macropodus
13. Macropodus cupanus (Val.) Not assessed
viii Family: Channidae
m Genus: Channa
1 4. Channa punctatus (Bloch) Low risk, near
threatened
catfish Mystus armatus are of major importance
for fishery. Other small species are of minor
interest. Introduction of Oreochromis is a threat
to the native fauna.
The Nambiyar river is disturbed by
anthropogenic activity, due to the pilgrim sites
upstream, which is highly disturbed by the
washing, bathing and other activities of the
pilgrims and tourists. The headwater stream has
midstory and overstory trees, but the lowland
riparian vegetation has been altered by
agricultural farms. Agricultural effluent is a
major threat to the ecosystem in the lowland.
Diversion of small streams for irrigation
upstream is also a major threat to the stream
habitats and fish fauna of the Nambiyar river.
Acknowledgements
M. Arunachalam thanks the Dept, of
Biotechnology for financial assistance (No.BT/
R&D 19.06.93 dt. 28th March, 1996, Ministry
of Science & Technology, Govt, of India).
The authors are grateful to Mr. A. Vanarajan
(Project Assistant - DBT) for his help during
the survey.
October, 1998 M. ARUNACHALAM,
A. SANKARANARAYANAN,
J.A. JOHNSON,
A. MANIMEKALAN,
R. SORANAM,
P.N. SHANTHI,
C. VIJA YKUMAR
Sri Paramakalyani Centre for
En vivo n m en tal Sci ences ,
Manonmaniam Sundaranar University,
Alwarkurichi 627 412,
Tamil Nadu,
India.
154
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1 ) APR. 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
References
Johnsingh, A.J.T. & D. Wickram (1987): Fishes of Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991 ): Inland fishes of
Mundanthurai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. India and adjacent countries. Oxford & IBH
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(3): 526-633. Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., Vols. I & II\ ppl 1 58.
21. A PROFILE OF THE FOOD AND FEEDING OF HILLSTREAM TELEOSTS
OF GARHWAL HIMALAYAS
Hillstreams of the Garhwal Himalayas are
either glacier- and snow-fed (mostly larger and
perennial streams such as Yamuna, Tons,
Bhagirathi, Alaknanda, Mandakini, Pindar),
nonglacier- and/or spring-rain-fed. Almost all
the hillstreams of the Garhwal Hills (especially
in their meta- and hyporhithron zones) harbour
abundant and diverse ichthyofauna, reflecting a
diversity of habitat, food and location of
migratory routes.
Occupied Habitats
The category of hillstream fishes, based on
feeding habits, are:
1 . Surface feeders, e.g. Barilius bendelisis ,
B. vagra , B. bcirila, B. barna , Xenentodon
cancila and Esomus dauricus.
2. Column feeders, e.g. Schizothoraichthys
progastus , Puntius chola, P. sophore and P.
sarana, and
3. Bottom feeders, e.g. Schizothorax
plagiostomus , S. richardsonii , Garra spp.,
Crossocheilus latius latius, Glyptothorax spp.
and Pseudecheneis sulcatus.
There is no convincing method of
differentiating the feeding sites from non-feeding
sites. It may be indirectly inferred from
observations on gut contents and seasonal
variations of feeding.
Das and Moitral (1963, 1965) classified
the feeding habits of fishes from the Central
Himalayan streams (including Garhwal
Himalaya) as: i. Herbivorous (75% of food is
plant material), ii. Omnivorous (plant and animal
material approximately 50% each), and iii.
Carnivorous (animal material constitutes over
75%). Later, two categories were added,
Herbi-omnivorous (greater amount of plant
material) and Carni-omnivorous (a greater
amount of animal material). Twenty-seven teleost
species from Garhwal Himalaya have been
classified according to their feeding habits ( 1 993)
(Table 1).
According to to Nikolsky’s ( 1963) scheme,
based on variation in the type of food consumed,
most fishes from Garhwal rivers (especially the
27 reviewed in Table 1) are either euryphagic
(take a wide variety of food items) or stenophagic
(feed on few types of food) except a few, viz.
Pseudecheneis sulcatus , Glyptothorax
pectinopterus , G. conirostris, G. telchitta which
feed only on a single category of food, e.g. larvae
and nymphs of aquatic insects.
Peculiar features and adaptations for food
selection
The basic morphology of the feeding
apparatus, common to all teleosts, differs in form
according to the species, and is adapted to a
particular mode of feeding (Larkin 1979). The
primary feeding adaptations of herbivore fish
are structural in nature. Food capture by
carnivores generally requires more elaborate
techniques, as potential prey has its own
behavioural and structural arrangements for
avoiding capture.
Hillstream fishes of Garhwal region live
under ecological conditions that may be stressful
and less favourable for optimal feeding. These
fishes have evolved numerous adaptations to this
environment, some of which affect their food
gathering and feeding:
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155
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Table 1
FEEDING HABITS AND BASIC FOODS OF SOME HILLSTREAM
TELEOSTS
Feeding habits
Fish species
Basic foods
Special remarks
Herbivorous
Schizothorax richardsonii
algae, diatoms and surface scraps
of the bottom
bottom feeder
benthophagous and detritophagous
S. plagiostomus
*'
"
S. sinuatus
11
"
Crossocheilus latius latius
"
"
Garra gotyla gotyla
"
"
G. lamta
"
"
Labeo dyocheilus
diatoms and algae
bottom feeder
L. dero
"
"
Herbi -omnivorous
Puntius chilinoides
diatoms, algae, aquatic weeds insects and
their larvae
Tor spp.
"
Omnivorous
Puntius ticto
-
-
P. cliola
-
-
Chagunius chagunio
-
-
Barilius bendelisis
-
-
B. barila
-
-
B. barna
-
-
C am i -o mn i vorou s
Sch izo thorn i ch thys
insect larvae, crustaceans pre-dominant
-
progastus
but aquatic weeds and algae also present
B. vagra
"
-
Noemecheilus multifasciatus
-
N. rupicola
-
N. montanus
-
Carnivorous
Pseudecheneis sulcatus
aquatic insects, their larvae and nymphs
bottom feeder and monophagic
Glyptothorax telchitta
"
G. pectinopterus
"
G. conirostrus
B. bola
-
-
Mastacembelus armatus
insects, larvae and nymphs; small
sized fishes also present
predator
a) The mouth opening in the bottom feeders,
bottom scrapers, burrowers and mud suckers
( Garra gotyla gotyla, G. lamtci , Schizothorax
plagiostomus , S. richardsonii , Crossocheilus latius
latius, Pseudecheneis sulcatus, Glyptothorax spp.)
is wide and situated ventrally and subventrally
instead of being terminal as in other teleosts. A
hard scraping plate in the lower jaw, posterior to
the mouth opening, helps in scraping the detritus.
In Tor tor and Schizothoraichthys progastus , the
mouth is suctorial and funnel-shaped, formed by
the eversion and modification of lips.
Mastacembelus armatus has an upperjaw and lip
longer than the lower one, a well developed dental
battery in both jaws, suitable for predation.
b) Location of food depends on the sensory
capabilities, of the fish. Vision is important in
species with large prominent eyes, while the
non-visual senses are important in fishes with
reduced visual capability (Aleev 1969). This is
common among fishes living at the bottom or in
conditions of reduced light. Accordingly, the fish
species are described as sight feeder (using visual
stimuli while gathering food) and nose feeders
(using olfactory cues for feeding). The strictly
surface and column feeder carnivores (predators,
piscivore and larvivore), and herbivorous fishes
are sight feeders, whereas, bottom feeders
156
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 97(1) APR. 2000
■ MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
(detritophagous and mud suckers) are nose
feeders (Table 1.)
Based on the observation of the major gut
contents and food preference under normal and,
abnormal situations, the various food items may
be described as:
1. Basic food - major part of gut contents
throughout the year.
2. Secondary food - frequent in gut contents,
but lesser than basic foods.
3 . Obligatory food - forced to take under stress
and food scarcity.
4. Incidental food - of rare occurrence.
Reduction in availability of ‘preferred’ prey
resources
Degradation of favourable feeding sites
leads to adverse qualitative and quantitative
impacts on the growth of planktonic and benthic
communities. This causes in turn serious
disruption of the food chain and the energy cycle
in the early phases of the life cycle of
omnivorous, herbi-omnivorous, carni-omnivo-
rous and carnivorous fish species. Food
availability, the nature of feeding grounds and
stimuli-feeding responses are less compatible
with the adaptations/specialisations for torrential
rapids in the hillstreams, particularly in case of
bottom dwellers and feeders; the water current
Refer
Aleev Y. G. (1969): Functional and gross morphology in
fishes (Israeli Programme for Scientific Translation,
Jerusaelum).
Badola, S. P. (1993): Ecological studies on the
ichthyofauna of some freshwater resources of
Garhwal region, Ph. D. thesis, HNB Garhwal
University, Srinagar, Garhwal.
has played a significant role in their evolution.
Alterations in water quality are also
brought about by the addition of silt, explosives,
large rocks (a result of dam/barrage construction)
as well as irrational fishing methods.
Acknowledgements
We thank Prof. Asha Chandola-Saklani,
Head, Department of Zoology, HNB Garhwal
University, for valuable discussions, Prof. M.K.
Chandrashekaran and Prof. T. J. Pandian, School
of Biological Sciences, Madurai Kamaraj
University, kindly spared their time to give
valuable suggestions. During first author’s visit
to the Department of Animal Behaviour, School
of Biological Sciences, under the DST’s ‘SERC
Visiting Fellowship 1994-95’ (No. SR/VS/033),
valuable help was granted.
January 19, 1999 N. SINGH
Zoology Department,
HNB Garhwal University,
Srinagar, Garhwal 246 174.
R. SUBBARAJ
Department of Animal Behaviour,
School for biological Sciences,
Madurai Kamaraj University,
Madurai 625 021, Tamil Nadu, India.
E N C E S
Das, S. M. & S.K. Moitra ( 1 963): Ichthyologicci 2: 107.
Das, S. M. & S. K. Moitra ( 1 965): Ichthyologicci 4 : 1 07.
Larkin, P. A. (1979): In\ Fisheries management, edited
by H Clepper (Sport Fishing Institute,
Washington).
Nikolsky, G. V. (1963): The ecology of fishes (Academic
Press, London).
22. A SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF THE HOST-PLANTS OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA
Indian Lepidoptera are comparatively well
known. The early stages and biology of all species
of economic importance are known, but little
emphasis has been placed on the remaining
species. These constitute the vast majority and
are of significance in bio-diversity studies.
The opportunistic rearing of eggs from
gravid females and larvae discovered in the field
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES-,
over a period of several years resulted in the
discovery of the following, hitherto unreported,
hostplants. This work was carried out in the
Kumaon Himalaya in northern India, at an
elevation of 1500 m above msl.
The taxonomy of several groups of moths
is in need of review. In cases such as the
Spilarctia Butler species of the sagittifera Moore
group (Arctiidae), and what was previously the
Dasychira Steph. genus (Lymantridae), we have
not assigned specific status.
Rosa sp., mentioned as the hostplant of
Eterusia Ieptalina Kollar, Dasychira inclusa
Walker and Spilarctia multiguttata Walker, are
hybrid tea roses rather than good species. In some
cases, hostplants accepted in one part of the
insect’s range are refused in other parts. Thus,
freshly emerged larvae of Ambulyx liturata Butler
(Sphingidae) did not accept Quercus
leucotrichophora A. Camus and Q. floribunda
Lindley ex A. Camus (Fagaceae) in Kumaon,
although it has been bred on Quercus Linn, in
China by Mell (Bell and Scott 1937).
The preference of most local Arctiinae for
Pouzolzia zeylanica (Linn.) Bennet & Brown,
Setaria megaphylla (Steud.) Dur. & Schinz, and
Plantago major Linn, is of interest. Many well
known European Arctiinae are extremely
polyphagous, the larvae having accepted, in
addition to the known hostplants, such diverse
items as potatoes, apples and even bread! The
same cannot be said of the Himalayan species,
except perhaps members of the Spilarctia
casigneta group. We did not get the opportunity
to try Setaria megaphylla on Estigmene imbuta
Walker, but there seems a likelihood that it will
accept it as readily as Pouzolzia Gaud. It,
however, did not accept Plantago major.
Gardner (quoted by Sevastopulo 1949) notes
that the larvae of Polytela gloriosae Fabr.
(Noctuidae) feed on Liliaceae and Amaryllidaceae,
species of Zephyranthes Herb, being specially
favoured. In our experience, they much prefer
Gloriosa superba Linn, to Zephyranthes carinata
Herb., for they will not touch the latter so long as
even a stem of the former is available. We have
also bred them on Zephyranthes Herb.
All the following bred specimens are in
our collection. We have followed Barlow (1982)
in the arrangement of moth families.
Lepidoptera Species
Host Plant Species
Family: Zygaenidae
Tripanophora
Camellia sinensis
semihyalina Kollar
(Linn.) Kuntze (Theaceae)
Wisteria sinensis (Sims.)
DC (Leguminosae)
Pelargonium L’Herit
(Geraniaceae)
Eterusia Ieptalina Kollar
Pyrus communis Linn.
(Rosaceae)
Rosa sp. (Rosaceae)
Agalope bifasciata Hope
Crataegus crenulata
G. Koch (Rosaceae)
Family: Limacodidae
Darna ?cotesi Swinhoe
Cyperus paniceus
(Rottb.) Boeck.
(Cyperaceae)
Family: Bombycidae
Bombyx huttoni
Morus nigra Linn.
Westwood
(Moraceae)
Family: Sphingidae
Dolbina inexact a Walker
Olea glandulifera Wall,
ex DC (Oleaceae)
Family: Notodontidae
Chadisra bipars Walker
Grewia optiva
J.R. Drummond
ex Burret (Tiliaceae)
Family: Arctiidae
Spilarctia sp. of the
Dioscorca bulbifera
sagittifera group
Linn. (Dioscorcaceac)
Cuscuta re flex a Roxb.
(Convoh ulaceae)
Strobilanthes
dalhousianus (Nees)
C.B. Clarke (Acanthaceae)
Plantago major Linn.
(Plantaginaceae)
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Lepidoptera Species Host Plant Species
Lepidoptera Species
Host Plant Species
Euproctis anguligera
Butler
Dasychira inclusa
Walker
Dasychira sp.
Ilema nigritula Walker
Family: Agaristidae
Episteme adulatrix Kollar
Family: Noctuidae
Cocytodes coerulea
Guenee
Thysanoplusia orichalcea
Fabricius
Polytela gloriosae
Fabricius
Glochidion velutinum
Wight. (Euphorbiaceae)
Quisqualis indica Linn.
(Combretaceae)
Rosa sp. (Rosaceae)
Bauhinia vareigata Linn.
(Leguminosae)
Dioscorea bulbifera
Linn. (Dioscoreaceae)
Dioscorea bulbifera
Linn. (Dioscoreaceae)
Bohemeria plalyphyila
D. Don (Urticaceae)
Lep id ium vi rgini cum
Linn. (Cruciferae)
Gloriosa superba Linn.
(Liliaceae) preferred
over Zephyranthes
carina ta Herbet
(Amaryllidaceae)
Spilarctia multiguttata
Walker
Estigmene imbuta
Walker
Estigmene quadriramosa
Kollar
Pericallia galactina
von. d. Hoev
Pericallia imperialis
Kollar
Callimorpha plagiata
Walker
Macrobrochus gigas
Walker
Family: Lymantridae
Euproctis latifascia
Walker
Euproctis plagiata
Walker
Pouzolzia zeylanica
(Linn.) Bennet & Brown
(Urticaceae)
Set aria megaphylla
(Steud.) Dur. & Schinz
(Graminae)
Rosa sp. (Rosaceae)
Dioscorea bulbifera Linn.
(Dioscoreaceae)
Pouzolzia zeylanica
(Linn.) Bennet & Brown
(Urticaceae)
Plantago major Linn.
(Plantaginaceae)
Taraxacum sp.
(Compositae)
Pouzolzia zeylanica
(Linn.) Bennet & Brown
(Urticaceae)
Pouzolzia zeylanica
(Linn.) Bennet & Brown
(Urticaceae)
Setaria megaphylla
(Steud.) Dur. & Schinz
(Graminae)
Plantago major Linn.
(Plantaginaceae)
Pouzolzia zeylanica
(Linn.) Bennet & Brown
(Urticaceae)
Setaria megaphylla
(Steud.) Dur. & Schinz
(Graminae)
Pouzolzia zeylanica
(Linn.) Bennet & Brown
(Urticaceae)
Lichens
Quercus
leucotrichophora
A. Camus (Fagaceae)
Glochidion velutinum
Wight. (Euphorbiaceae)
Family: Epiplemidae
Epiplema reticulata
Moore
Family: Pyralidae
Agathodes ostentalis
Huebner
Family: Pieridae
Pontia daplidice Linne
Artogeia canidia
Sparrman
Family: Nymphalidae
Symbrenthia lilaea
Hewitson
Precis iphita Cramer
Pareba issoria Huebner
Jasminum dispermum
Wallich (Oleaceae)
Erythrina suberosa
Roxb. (Leguminosae)
Lep id i urn virgin icu n 1
Linn. (Cruciferae)
Lepidium virginicum
Linn. (Cruciferae)
Bohemeria platyphylla
D. Don (Urticaceae)
A echmanthera tomentosa
Nees (Acanthaceae)
Debregeasia longijolia
(Burm. f.) Wedd.
(Urticaceae)
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1), APR. 2000
159
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Acknowledgements
We thank Professor Y.P.S. Pangtey and Dr.
B.S. Kalakoti, Department of Botany, Th. D.S.B.
College, Nainital, who kindly identified some
of the plants, and Dr. Poonam Mehrotra of the
Department of Ecology of the same institution
for her kind help with the bibliography.
Refer
Barlow, H.S. (1982): An Introduction to the Moths of
South East Asia. Malayan Nature Soc., Kuala
Lumpur.
Bell, T.R.D. & F.B. Scott (1937): The Fauna of British
India including Ceylon and Burma, Moths, Vol. V,
October 27, 1 999 PETER SMETACEK
RAJANI SMETACEK
Jones Estate,
Bhinital,
Nainital, Pin 263 136,
Uttar Pradesh,
India.
E N C E S
Sphingidae, Taylor & Francis, London.
Sevastopulo, D.G. (1949): A supplementary list of the
foodplantsofthe Indian Bombycidae, Agaristidae
and Noctuidae.J. Bombay ncit. Hist. Soc. 48: 265-
276.
23. ON THE PREDATION OF THE GIANT REDEYE GANGARA THYRSIS
(FABRICIUS) (FAMILY : HESPERIIDAE; ORDER : LEPIDOPTERA)
The Giant Redeye Gangara thyrsis Family
Hesperiidae is not an uncommon butterfly in
Bangalore. It is often seen in gardens around its
food plants — Areca lutens, Cocos nucifera and
other palms.
Observations on the predators of the Giant
Redeye were made on nine Areca lutens plants
ranging in height from 1-4 m, and frequented
by these insects. It was observed that the bonnet
macaque ( Macaca radiata ) and the house crow
( Corvus splendens) fed on the larvae and pupae
of the Giant Redeye.
One individual of a troop of bonnet
macaques which visited the premises where
observations were made, systematically searched
all the palms for larvae and pupae. The macaque
searched the leaves rolled up by the larvae,
opened them, and ate the larvae (which have
long, loosely attached, white thread-like
outgrowths amidst which are red spots).
Similarly, the macaque opened the tubes
made of palm fronds which conceal the pupae
and ate the pupae.
A house crow which visited the premises
seemed to have noticed a pupa of the Giant Redeye.
It gave up its efforts to procure the pupa as it was
unable to balance itself on the slender palm fronds.
A good half hour had elapsed before the bird
returned and perched on the neighbouring
Colocasia sp.(?) growing amidst the palms. From
the new perch, it successfully ripped open the tube
and swallowed the pupa whole.
These are probably new records of
predators of the Giant Redeye.
May 25, 1999 S. KARTHIKEYAN
24, Opp. Banashankari Temple,
S h a ka m b a ri n agar,
8th Block Jaycinagar P.O.,
Bangalore 560 082, Karnataka, India.
24. MATING BEHAVIOUR OF THE COMMON MORMON PAPILIO POLYPES
(FAMILY: PAPILIONIDAE)
During February 1998, 1 was studying the polytes) was one of the species reared
metamorphosis of different species of successfully. After a pupal period of ten days, a
Papilionidae and Nymphalidae in my home female Common Mormon emerged from its
laboratory. The Common Mormon ( Papilio chrysalis at about 0900 hrs. The Common
160
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1 ) APR. 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Mormon is known to exhibit polymorphism,
having three female forms. So I observed it
carefully and found that it belonged to the stichius
form which resembles the Common Rose
( Pachliopta aristolochiae). After spreading its
shrunken and wet wings, I shifted the butterfly
to dry its wings on to a lemon tree from which
the caterpillar was collected. I kept watching
continuously for about 30 minutes and took some
photographs. During this time I noticed a male
Common Mormon flying around the lemon tree.
I took detailed notes and left the site.
I visited the site again after 20 minutes and
was astonished to find the newly emerged
butterfly mating with the mature male Mormon.
It was very interesting that the female Mormon
had not even changed its position from where I
had placed it initially. The marginal wing scales
of the male Mormon were somewhat damaged
and wing edges ruptured, indicating the
extremity of its lifespan.
The male and female were in the clasped
posture for another 90 minutes, with both their
wings spread. The male was inverted, suspended
25. MYCOPHAGOUS ARTHROPODS
The native fungi and their associated
arthropods are both very poorly known from the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands. To study the
nature of fungal-arthropod interactions we have
been documenting the arthropod fauna of the
fungi of these islands.
The arthropods so far collected on fungi
from the Islands are represented by Coleoptera
(including mycophagous staphy-linids and
tenebrionids) and a couple of Acarina. The oyster
mushroom Pleurotus sajor-caju is attacked by
Scaphisoma sp. (Coleoptera) in the cropping
chamber, when this mushroom is cultured
indoors.
List of Mycophagous arthropods from the
Andaman Islands are as follows:
from the copulatory organ of the female. The hind
wing of the female remained on the upper side,
overlapping the male’s wing. A white droplet of
spermatozoa was observed on the wingbase of
the male Mormon, perhaps splashed during the
ejaculation. It was most surprising that the female
became involved in mating immediately upon
emergence, even prior to its first flight.
Acknowledgements
I thank my family for support and help in
the rearing of butterflies. I especially thank
Mr. Samarjit Paul for valuable information and
help in specimen collection, and Md. Latif
Hussain, for use of his computer.
May 20, 1999 ARNAB BOSE
c/o Assam Wood Industries
North Bongaigaon,
P.O. & Dist. -Bongaigaon,
Pin 783 380,
Assam,
India.
FROM THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS
Insecta
Coleoptera
Ciidae Cis spp.*
Erotylidae Spondotriplax andamana
Arrow
Scaphidiidae Scaphisoma sp.
Staphylinidae Gyrophaena sp.
Tenebrionidae Cryphaeus sp.
(Toxicinae)
Acarina
Mesostigmata
Uropodidae CylIibula?bordagei
(Oudemans)
Oribatada
(=Cryptostigmata )
Parakalummidae Genus et sp. indet.
♦Four species, presently not identified, were recorded.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
161
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
ACKNO WLEDG EM ENTS
We thank Dr. A.K. Bandyopadhyay,
Director, C.A.R.I. for encouragement and Drs.
R.G. Booth and D. MacFarlane of the
International Institute of Entomology, London,
for identification.
May 12, 1999 PRASHANTH MOHAN RAJ
K. VEENAKUMARI
Central Agricultural Research Institute
Port Blair 744 103,
Andaman and Nicobar Islands,
India.
26. ON DAPHNIOPSIS TIBET AN A SARS, 1903, (CLADOCERA) COLLECTED
FROM A HIGH ALTITUDE HIMALAYAN LAKE, INDIA
{With seven text-figures)
Four species of the genus Daphniopsis have
so far been described, viz. D. pusilla, D. studeri ,
D. tibetana all by Sars (1903) and D. australis
by Sergeev and Williams (1985). All the four
species occur in saline water, among which
D. tibetana is found in high altitude Himalayan
saline lakes in India, Nepal, Tibet and Mongolia.
After the original description of D. tibetana by
Sars (1903) from Tibet, Brehm and Woltereck
(1939) recorded the same species as Daphnia
tibetana from Panggong Tso in Ladakh. The
present report is a record of this species after a
gap of five decades. A detailed description, and
new morphological characters have been given,
based on a few samples collected from Panggong
Tso Lake.
A few samples collected during one of the
regular trips to high altitude Himalayan lakes
by the Zoological Survey of India, Solan, at
Panggong Tso lake on August 23, 1998, were
sent to the author for identification. The sample
consists of thousands of adult female
Daphniopsis tibetana, as well as Cyclops
ladacanuslfi) and Gammarus pulex{?). The
materials used in this study include mature
females as well as different pre-adult instars
sorted from the collections. The lake Panggong
Tso is in the Ladakh district of the western
Himalayan region, at an altitude of 4241 m. It is
an oligotrophic saline lake (pH 9.35). Other
physico-chemical parameters were not recorded
due to bad weather conditions.
Description
Daphniopsis tibetana Sars 1903
Daphniopsis tibetana Sars 1903. Acad.
Asci. St. Petersb. 8 p. 171.
Daphniopsis tibetana Brehm & Woltereck,
1939. Int. Rev. ges. Hydrobiol. 1-19.
Female: Body size 2.62 mm; Body width
1.65 mm. Head wide and depressed, slightly
produced near eye and ventral edge slightly
concave. Rostrum prominent and blunt. Fornix
extending in front and evenly arched. Eye
moderately large, irregularly shaped, ocellus
rounded and relatively large.
Carapace without dorsal carina or a
posterior spine and not denticulate. Body slightly
compressed and oval, dorsal and ventral margins
evenly arched (Fig. 1). Postero- ventral margin
with numerous submarginal spines. In adult
females, carapace slightly larger than wide.
Antennules small, immovable, not projecting
beyond rostrum, with terminal sensory papillae
and subterminal seta. Antennae large, setal
formula (0-0- 1-3/1 -1-3). Hepatic caeca large and
coiled as in other daphnids. Trunk limb 2 (Figs.
2-6): external branch of endopodite bearing three
slightly chitinised, subequal setae (Figs. 2, 6)
gnathobase 18 setae, (Fig. 2) with a second seta
different in structure (Figs. 3, 4) from the sensory
papilla of gnathobase (Fig. 5). Postabdomen (Fig.
7) tapering distally, dorsal margin sinuate with
10-12 anal denticles. Ventral margin of the
162
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Fig. 1-5: 1. Dciphniopsis tibetana : female - lateral view; 2- Trunk limb II, 3-4. Second seta of gnathobase,
5. Sensory papilla of gnathobase.
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163
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
postabdomen with a series of small spines. Claws
with proximal and middle combs of lateral setae.
Abdominal process long.
Males: Not found in the present study.
Remarks: Michael & Sharma (1988),
while compiling the Fauna of India, Cladocera,
described Daphniopsis tibetana from the
literature only since no material was available
to them. However, Chiang and Du (1979)
described D. tibetana from China with a
maximum adult size of 2.30-2.90 mm, which is
slightly larger than the present record of 2.62
mm. Sergeev and Williams (1985) separated
D. australis, a new species, from D. pusilla in
Australian salt lakes based on the trunk limb
morphology, with a body size ofl.82±0.36 mm,
which is relatively smaller than D. tibetana in
this sturdy. Loffler (1969) studied the general
limnology of 24 high altitude lakes of Khumbu
area, Nepal and recorded three species of
Cladocera among which D. tibetana is one. A
decade after the visit of Loffler, Swar and
Fernando (1979) recorded D. tibetana along with
22 other species of Cladocera from Pokhara
Valley, Nepal. However, Dumont and Van der
Refer
Brehm, V. & R. Woltereck (1939): Die Daphniden der
Yale-North India Expedition. Int. Rev. ges. Hydrobiol.
48: 159-172.
Chiang, S. & N. Du (1979): Fauna of Sinica: Crustacea,
Cladocera, Science Press, Academia Sinica, Peking,
297 pp.
Dumont, H.J. & 1. Van der Velde (1977): Report on a
collection of Cladocera and Copepoda from Nepal.
Hydrobiologia 53(1): 55-65.
Kokkinn, M.J. & N.D. Williams (1987): Is ephippial
morphology a useful taxonomic descriptor in the
Cladocera? An examination based on a study of
Daphniopsis from Australian salt lakes
Hydrobiologia 145: 67-73.
Velde (1977) who surveyed the same area, could
not collect D. tibetana from Nepal. The ephippial
morphological studies conducted by Kokkinn and
Williams (1987) found six morphotypes among
the species of Daphniopsis in the salt lakes of
Australia. However, in India no such studies have
been undertaken due to the remoteness of the
habitat where D. tibetana is found.
Acknowledgements
I thank Dr. J.R.B. Alfred, Director
Zoological Survey of India for sending the lake
collections to me for identification and facilities
to conduct this study. I thank Shn A. Sivakumar,
Technical Assistant, ICMAM Project, MBS, ZSI
for typing the manuscript.
August 6, 1998 K. VENKATARAMAN
Marine Biological Station,
Zoological Survey of India,
100, Santhome High Road,
Chennai 600 028,
Tamil Nadu,
India.
iNCES
Loffler, H. (1969): High altitude lakes in Mt. Everest
region. Verb. Internal. Verein. Linmol. 17: 373-385.
Michael, R.G. & B.K. Sharma (1988): Fauna of India,
Cladocera. (ed.) The Director, Zoological Survey of
India, Calcutta. 262 pp.
Sars, G.O. ( 1 903): On the Crustacean Fauna of Central
Asia. Part II. Cladocera Ann. Mus. Zool. Acad. Sci.
St. Petersb. 8: 157-194.
Sergeev, V. & W.D. Williams ( 1 985): Daphniopsis australis
sp. nov. (Crustacea : Cladocera), a further daphniid in
Australian salt lakes. Hydrobiologia 120: 1 19-128.
Swar, D.B. & C.H. Fernando (1979): Cladocera from
Pokhara Valley, Nepal with notes on distribution.
Hydrobiologia 66 : 113-128.
27. INDIGOFERA MYSORENSIS ROTTLER EX DC. (LEGUMINOSAE : PAPILIONOIDEAE)
- AN ENDEMIC SPECIES OF PENINSULAR INDIA FROM WEST BENGAL
During a plant collection tour in Uttar branched, erect, sticky, villous undershrub were
Dinajpur District, West Bengal, specimens of a collected from the deforested dry sandy areas of
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
165
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Hemtabad Forest Beat in Raiganj subdivision.
These specimens were identified as Indigofer a
mysorensis Rottler ex DC., a species that has
hitherto been considered as endemic to the
Deccan peninsula. Its known northern limit has
been the Timpati Hills of Andhra Pradesh. It has
not been collected from Orissa and southern West
Bengal. This species is recorded here for the first
time from a disjunct locality i.e. Hemtabad forest
m Uttar Dinajpur, West Bengal.
Indigofera mysorensis Rottler ex DC.,
Prodr. 2: 222. 1825; Baker in Hook. / FI. Brit.
India 2: 102. 1876; Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras 1:
313. 1918; Sanjappa inFasc. FI. India 21: 100,
fig. 39. - 1995.
Type: Ind. Orient., Mysore, Rottler s.n..
Herb. De Candolle 2: 222 (G - DC. microf.!).
FI.: Sept. -Dec.; Fr.: Dec. -March.
Distribution: Western Ghats (Nilgiri hills
upto 1200 m); Chittoor, Cuddapah, Nellore and
Kurnool districts of Andhra Pradesh: Bangalore,
Mysore, Mandya districts of Karnataka and Uttar
Dinajpur district of West Bengal.
Field notes: Bushy, viscid, undershrub;
stem and branches pinkish; apices of leaflets and
calyx with dark brown sticky glands, and leaves
often stained with dark brown liquid.
Specimen examined: West Bengal: Uttar
Dinajpur, Hemtabad Forest Beat, Raiganj
Subdivision; 25. i. 1997; S. Mitra 2887 A - C (CAL)
February 3, 1999 S. MITRA
S. BANDYOPADHYAY
Botanical Survey of India
Howrah 711 103,
West Bengal India.
A.K. SARKAR
Department of Botany,
University of Kalyani.
Kalyani, Nadia, India.
28. RANGE EXTENSION OF NEPENTHES KHASIANA
IN THE JAINTIA HILLS, MEGHALAYA
( With one text-figure )
The pitcher plant belongs to an interesting
group of insectivorous herbs. Of the two genera,
only one, i.e., Nepenthes is represented in India,
and that too by one species N. khasiana Hk. f.
which is confined to Meghalaya. In Meghalaya,
it occurs only in the high rainfall southern facies
of the plateau from 100-1500 m above msl,
affecting both tropical evergreen and sub-
tropical wet hill forest, often with patches of
grass. So far, specimens have been collected from
a few localities in the South Garo Hills and
Jaintia Hills districts (Rodgers and Gupta, 1989).
The pattern of distribution suggests that it occurs
in East and West Khasi Hills district also.
Maheskhola shown in East Khasi Hills by
Rodgers and Gupta (1989) is actually on the
South Garo Hills-West Khasi Hills border. In
Jaintia Hills, it has been recorded from Jowai
and Jarain. So far, Jowai formed the easternmost
as well as northernmost recorded locality (25°
27' N, 92° 12' E). while Baghmara in South Garo
Hills forms the westernmost (90° 40' E) although
there are some reports from farther west also
(90° 25' E).
I report here a new locality in Jaintia Hills
where I observed and photographed N. khasiana.
On June 11, 1998 while driving from Guwahati
to Silchar via Meghalaya, I noticed N. khasiana
in a small area between Khlieriat and Umtra, 9
km from the former and 2 km from the latter,
on the left side of National Highway 44 while
coming from Khlieriat (25° 20' N, 92° 25' E)
(Fig. 1 ). The plants were mostly on a steep slope
alongside the main road. Among other notable
plants was the bamboo orchid Arundina
graminifolia. The elevation of the site is 1100
m above msl. Besides being a new locality, it is
also an extension of the eastern limit. A cursory
1 66
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1) APR. 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Fig. 1 : Map of Meghalaya showing the localities of N. khasiana
look indicated the presence of more than 30
pitcher plants on the roadside, and more must
have been there.
The Divisional Forest Officer (Wildlife),
Jaintia Hills has already been approached for
preserving the area as a ‘Sanctuary’. Perhaps
this is the only known site of pitcher plants
alongside a busy National Highway and there is
potential for more visitors than in the Baghmara
and Jarain Pitcher Plant Sanctuaries. It is hoped
that this will help conservation by generating
more interest in this rare plant.
Nov. 11, 1998 ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY
The Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India ,
c/o The Assam Co. Ltd., Bamunimaidam,
Guwahati 781 021,
Assam, India.
Reference
Rodgers, W.A. & S. Gupta (1989): The Pitcher Plant Hills, Meghalaya: lessons for conservation.
(Nepenthes khasiana Hk. f.) Sanctuary of Jaintia J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86: 17-21.
29. SCLERIA LAXA R. BR. (CYPERACEAE) — A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA
FROM NICOBAR ISLANDS
( With one text-figure )
During a survey of the grasslands of tall grasses and forbs along the banks of water-
Nancowry group of islands, I located a scanty courses which turned out to be Scleria laxa R. Br.,
population of an interesting sedge, growing amidst a species not recorded so far from the Indian region.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
167
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
168
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1) APR. 2000
' MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
The genus Scleria Berg, holds over 200
species, of which about 21 species occur in
mainland India (Santapau and Henry, 1994) and
10 in the Andaman-Nicobar Islands. S. laxa R.
Br. is a remarkable species with very restricted
distribution m Queensland, Torres Strait in Malesia
and South New Guinea. The present collection
from Teressa Is. in the Nancowry group is of much
phytogeographic interest. The Nancowry group of
islands, situated in the Nicobar district, between
7° 50'-8° 10' N lat. and 93° 30'-93°40' E long.,
consists of 8 to 9 far-flung islands with hills, ridges,
dense forest and grassland. A striking feature of
the plant cover here is the presence of large patches
of grassland or heaths. The description of this
species is already available in Kern (1974), and a
brief note along with a line drawing is provided
here, based on the recent collection.
Scleria laxa R. Br., Prod. 240.1810; Kern,
FI. Males. 7:748.1974.
Annual. Culm slender, up to 40 cm high.
Leaves linear, 1-3 mm wide. Inflorescence
paniculate, of 3-4 fascicles. Peduncles slender,
lateral ones longer. Glumes ovate, acute. Nuts
globose, ivory-white, shining, longitudinally
ribbed, tuberculate at apex, 1.0-1. 5 mm wide.
Ecology: Grows along the margins of
streams, in open grasslands in association with
Phragmites karka Steud., Cyperus spp., etc.
FI. & Fr.: January-March.
Specimen examined: Nicobar dt.:
Nancowry group of islands, Teressa Is., way to
Alu rong at 3 km, + 50 m, 23.ii.1997, coll. P.V.
Sreekumar 16726 (PBL).
Acknowledgement
I thank Dr. P.K. Hajra, Ex-Director,
Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, for
encouragement and facilities.
November 15, 1998 P.V. SREEKUMAR
Botanical Survey of India
Andaman & Nicobar Circle,
Post Box No. 692, Haddo,
Port Blair 744 102,
Andaman & Nicobar Is.,
India.
References
Kern, J.H. (1974): Cyperaceae in FI. Males. 7:748. Flowering plants in India. Publication &
Santapau, H. & A.N. Henry ( 1 994): A Dictionary of the Information Directorate, New Delhi, Repr.
30. RHAPHIDOPHORA CALOPHYLLUM SCHOTT (ARACEAE) — AN ADDITION TO THE
FLORA OF THE ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS
( With one text-figure)
Specimens of the genus Rhaphidophora
Hassk. in Indian herbaria were studied for a
systematic revision of the Indian Araceae. An
unidentified specimen collected on the Nicobar
Islands was identified as Rhaphidophora
calophyllum. The identity was later confirmed
with the help of the protologue and type. It is
reportedly distributed in northeast India, East
Himalayas and also regions of Burma (Hooker,
1 893). It is recorded here for the Nicobar Islands.
A detailed description and an illustration are
provided.
Rhaphidophora calophyllum Schott (in
Bonplandia 5: 45. 1857, nom.), Prodr. 380. 1860;
Engl. In DC., Monogr. Phan. 2: 242. 1879;
Furtado in Gard. Bull. Straits Settlem. 8: 150.
1934; A.S. Rao & D.M. Verma in Bull. Bot.
Surv., India 18: 31. 1976; Balakr., FI. Jowai 2:
560. 1983; Karth. etal., FI. Ind. Enum. Monocot.
3. 1989. Type: Sikkim, 3-5000 ft., without date,
J.D. Hooker s.n. (K, photo!).
R. lancifolia Schott (in Bonpandia 5: 45.
1857, nom.), Prodr. 380. 1860; Masters in Gard.
Chron. 2: 611. 1874; Engl, in DC., Monogr.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
169
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Phan. 2: 241. 1879; Hook, f., FI. Brit. India 6:
545. 1893; Engl. & Krause in Engl., Pflanzenr.
IV 23-B: 26. 1908. R. peepla Schott, Prodr. 380.
1860; Hook, f., FI. Brit. India 6: 545. 1893, excl.
Wight, Icon. t. 780. 1844, non Pothos peepla
Roxb., 1832; Engl. & Krause in Engl., Pflanzenr.
IV. 23-B: 41. 1908.
Climber; stems 0.6- 1.2 cm across, rooting
at nodes; petioles 5.5-20 cm long, slender,
channelled at base. Leaves 9.2-27 x 2-12 cm,
falcately lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate,
cuspidately acuminate or caudate at apex, acute
or rounded at base, unequal-sided, a little
pendent, greenish brown when dry, coriaceous,
or faintly coriaceous when young; primary nerves
prominent on both surfaces. Peduncle 2-12.5 cm
long. Spathe 5-10 x 3-6 cm, ovate-oblong,
beaked, thickly coriaceous, green or orange
outside, deep red inside. Spadix 3-7.5 cm long,
white or green, yellowish on maturity, elongating
to 10 cm in fruits. Ovaries ca 3 mm across;
stigma raised, pulvinate (Fig. 1).
FI. & Fr.: Sept.-June.
Distribution: india: Uttar Pradesh, West
Bengal, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam
Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, Meghalaya,
Madhya Pradesh, Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
Common.
Extralimital: Bangladesh and Myanmar.
Specimens examined: Andaman &
Nicobar Islands (Great Nicobar Island): 31-32
km on Eastwest Road, inland hill forest, 100 m,
14.vi.1977, N. P. Balakrishnan 5757 (CAL).
Arunachal Pradesh: Kameng Dist., Bompu hills,
2133 m, 28.iii.1957, G. Pamgrahi 6202
(ASSAM). Assam: Nougram Wood, 1500 m,
5 .xi. 1 87 1 , C.B. Clarke 16674 (CAL). Manipur:
without precise locality, Dec. 1907, A. Meebold
7026 (CAL). Meghalaya: Khasia hills, 3000-
6000 ft., without date, J.D. H(ooker) & T.
T(homson) s.n. (Acc. No. 498013; ASSAM);
Khasia hills, 3000-6000 ft., without date, J.D.
H(ooker) s.n. (Acc. No. 53842; MH); Khasia
Fig. 1: Rhaphidophora calophyllum Schott: Habit
hills, without date, J.D. H(ooker) 434 (CAL);
Khasia hills, 3.xi.l871, C.B. Clarke 15923
(CAL); Khasia hills, 1881-82, G. Watt 5905
(DD); without precise locality, 1 5 .ix. 1 886, C.B.
Clarke 44800; Khasia hills, Oct. 1890, D.
Robester s.n. (Acc. No. 497983); without precise
locality, 7.ix.l894, G.A. Gammie 486 (CAL); K
& J hills, 5200 ft., 1 8.xii. 1915, Kanjilal 6412
(DD); Jowai, 26. v. 1956, R.S. Rao 2558; without
precise locality, 27.ix.1956, coll. ? 3446 (CAL);
K & J hills, Cheerapunji circuit house, Mawsmai
falls, 19.xh.1956, coll.? 4817 (ASSAM); without
precise locality, 23. i. 1957, G.K. Deka 5049,
Cheerapunji, Mawsmai forest, 23. ix. 1958, G.K.
Deka 17171 (CAL); Cheerapunji, 5. v. 1961, coll.?
24264; Sorarim, 17.x. 1967, A.S. Rao 37786
(ASSAM). Mizoram: Lushai hills, Jungh Valley,
30.iii. 1 899, A.T. Gage 15 (Acc. No. 498067;
ASSAM). Sikkim: Balasan, 9.xi.l895, G. King
s.n. (Acc. No. 498000); without precise locality,
30. v. 1951, T.T(homson) s.n. (Acc No. 498006;
ASSAM); 3000-5000 ft., without date,
J.D.H(ooker) 33, 303 (K, photo!). Tripura:
170
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1) APR. 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Agartala, 10. iv. 1956, D.B. Deb 253; Kailasham,
16.viii.1960, D.B. Deb 2645 (CAL). W. Bengal:
Darjeeling, Kodabari, 3000 ft., Aug. 1881, J.S.
Gamble 9749 (ASSAM, DD).
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr. P. Daniel, Deputy Director,
BSI, Coimbatore, for facilities and for his
valuable comments on the original draft, the
Director (K) and Dr. S.K. Murti, Indian Liaison
Officer (K), for the photograph of the type and
for literature. K. Sasikala the Director, BSI,
Calcutta, for a research fellowship, the regional
Deputy Directors for permission to consult the
herbaria and loan of specimens, and Mr. R.
Suresh, Senior Artist, BSI, Coimbatore, for the
figure.
November 15, 1998 K. SASIKALA
E. VAJRAVELU
Botanical Survey of India
Southern Circle, TNAU Campus,
Lawley Road P. O.,
Coimbatore 641 003,
Tamil Nadu,
India.
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
171
100 P
ERRATA
Vol. 96 No. 3, December 1999, pp. 448-449 refer to the following thirteen text-figures for
Figs. 1-7: Copidognathus greeni sp. nov. 1. Idiosoma dorsal (E), 2. Idiosoma ventral (E), 3. GA of G,
4. Magnified view of Epimeral process, 5. Gnathosoma, dorsal view, 6. OC, 7. Magnified view of AD.
rfOS
Figs. 8-13: Copidognathus greeni sp. nov. 8. Gnathosoma, ventral view, 9. Chelicera, 10. Leg. I,
1 1. Leg II, 12. Leg. IV, 13. Leg. Ill (Telofemur-tarsus).
TtOS
CORRIGENDUM
Reference is drawn to a recent note by Raju Thomas et al. (Distribution of Pangio goaensis
(Tilak) Cypriniformes : Cobitidae in Manimala river, Southern Kerala, J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc., 96(3): 479-480), in which the authors have referred to a paper by Rema Devi et al.
which they presumed had appeared in J. South Asian nat. Hist. 1996, 3(1): 19-22, on their
having seen the paper at the proof stage with the author. In a recent communication,
Dr. Rema Devi has informed the editors that the said paper had not been published as re-
ported since it was withdrawn at an advanced stage of its publication, four years after its
submission. This paper shall appear in a future issue of the JBNHS.
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Registered with the Registrar of Newspapers under RN 5685/57 ISSN 0006-6982
CONTENTS
EDITORIAL 1
POPULATION DENSITIES OF THE BLACKNAPED HARE LEPUS N1GRICOLLIS
NIGRICOLLIS AT ROLLAPADU WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, KURNOOL
DISTRICT, ANDHRA PRADESH
( With six text-figures )
By Ranjit Manakadan and Asad Rafi Rahmam 3
BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE MALABAR GREY HORNBILL ( OCYCEROS
GRISEUS) IN SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS, INDIA
( With one text-figure)
By Divya Mudappa 15
SOCIOECONOMIC TRANSITION AND WILDLIFE CONSERVATION IN THE
INDIAN TRANS-HIMALAYA
By Charudutt Mishra 25
AN ECOLOGICAL STUDY OF CROCODILES IN RUHUNA NATIONAL PARK,
SRI LANKA
( With three text-figures)
By Charles Santiapillai, Mangala de Silva, Sarath Dissanayake, B.V.R. Jayaratne
and S. Wijeyamohan 33
SEXUAL HARASSMENT AMONG FEMALE LION-TAILED MACAQUES
{MAC AC A SILENUS) IN THE WILD
( With three text-figures)
By Aj ith Kumar 42
SEASONAL CHANGES OF TROPICAL FOREST BIRDS IN THE SOUTHERN
WESTERN GHATS
( With seven text-figures)
By E.A. Jayson and D.N. Mathew 52
PLOD l A INTER P UN C TELL A (HUBNER) (PHYCITIDAE : LEPIDOPTERA) AS A
POTENTIAL PEST OF DRY FRUITS
By S.P. Rad, H.R. Pajni and Neelima Talwar 62
FRESHWATER CLADOCERA (CRUSTACEA : BRANCHIOPODA) OF THE
ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS
( With one text-figure)
By K. Venkataraman 67
LONGICORN BEETLES (CERAMBYCINAE, PRIONINAE : CERAMBY CID AE) OF
BUXA TIGER RESERVE, JALPAIGURI, WEST BENGAL
( With twelve text-figures)
By Dinendra Raychaudhuri and Sumana Saha 74
FISHES OF THE CYPRINID GENUS SEMIPLOTUS BLEEKER 1859, WITH
DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES FROM MANIPUR, INDIA
( With one text-figure and one plate)
By Waikhom Vishwanath and Laishram Kosygin 92
FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF INDIAN BARBETS, MEGALAIMA SPP.
( With three text-figures)
By Hafiz S.A. Yahya 103
NEW DESCRIPTIONS 117
REVIEWS 133
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 136
Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 103 and
published by J.C. Daniel for Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House,
Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai-400 023.
JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY MURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
AUGUST 2000
Vol. 97 (2)
f
BOARD OF EDITORS
>
Editor
J.C. DANIEL
M.R. ALMEIDA
AJITH KUMAR
M.K. CHANDRASHEKARAN
T.C. NARENDRAN
B.F. CHHAPGAR
A.R. RAHMANI
R. GADAGKAR
J.S. SINGH
INDRANEIL DAS
A.J.T. JOHNSINGH
Assistant Editor
R. WHITAKER
<
GAYATRI WATTAL UGRA
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5. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabetically
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Aluri, Raju J.S. & C. Subha Reddi (1995): Ecology of the pollination in two cat-mint
species. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(1): 63-66.
Prater, S.H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History Society,
Mumbai, pp. 35-48.
6. Each paper should be accompanied by an abstract, normally not exceeding 200
words, and 6-8 key words. Key Words should include the scientific names of important
species discussed.
7. 25 reprints will be supplied free of cost to authors of main articles. In the case of
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VOLUME 97 (2): AUGUST 2000 p£g f g gQQ) J
Date of Publication: 1-8-2000 N. _
CONTENTS
EDITORIAL 1 7 5
PHEASANT ABUNDANCE IN SELECTIVELY LOGGED AND UNLOGGED FORESTS
OF WESTERN ARUNACHAL PRADESH, NORTHEAST INDIA
( With one text-figure )
Aparajita Datta 177
FLORAL DIVERSITY OF GORIGANGA VALLEY IN THE CENTRAL HIMALAYAN
HIGHLANDS
( With one text-figure)
M.K. Pandit, Arun Bhaskar and Virendra Kumar 1 84
HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS OF BUTTERFLIES IN THE PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE
SANCTUARY, KERALA, INDIA
( With one text-figure)
V.V. Sudheendrakumar, C.F. Binoy, P.V. Suresh and George Mathew 193
GROWTH PATTERN OF MANGROVES IN THE GULF OF KUTCH
( With three text-figures)
H.S. Singh 202
THE STATUS OF MONGOOSES (FAMILY : HERPESTIDAE) IN RUHUNA NATIONAL
PARK, SRI LANKA
( With two text-figures)
Charles Santiapillai, Mangala De Silva and S.R.B. Dissanayake 208
AVIAN SPECIES INVOLVED IN POLLINATION AND SEED DISPERSAL OF SOME
FORESTRY SPECIES IN HIMACHAL PRADESH
M. L. Narang, R.S. Rana and Mukesh Prabhakar 2 1 5
STUDIES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE LABIAL TEETH ROW STRUCTURE IN
RANA CURTIPES JERDON TADPOLES
(With one plate)
Jinesh James, Thomas T. Valamparampil and Oommen V. Oommen 223
BURROW PATTERN OF INDIAN METAD MILLARDIA (RATTUS) MELTADA GRAY
(With one text-figure)
N. K. Pandey and A.S. Bhadauria 230
A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL
HISTORY SOCIETY — 38. PASSERINAE
Saraswathy Unnithan 234
PITFALL TRAP SAMPLING OF TROPICAL CARABIDS (CARABIDAE : COLEOPTERA)
— EVALUATION OF TRAPS, PRESERVATIVES AND SAMPLING FREQUENCY
S. Vennila and D. Rajagopal 24 1
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
BARILIINE FISHES OF MANIPUR, INDIA, WITH THE DESCRIPTION OF A NEW
SPECIES: BARI LI US LAIROKENSIS
(With one text-figure)
Laifrakpam Arunkumar and Hijam Tombi Singh 247
TWO NEW SPECIES OF COPIDOGNATHUS (HALACARIDAE : ACARI) FROM
KERALA
(With seventeen text-figures)
TapasChatterjee 253
MONELATA COMPLETES, A NEW SPECIES OF DIAPRIIDAE (HYMENOPTERA :
PROCTOTRUPOIDEA) FROM INDIA
( With four text-figures)
K. Rajmohana and T.C. Narendran 260
A NEW SPECIES OF PONTIUS (CYPRINIDAE : CYPRININAE) FROM MANIPUR,
INDIA
( With two plates)
A.G.K. Menon, K. Rema Devi and W. Vishwanath 263
REVIEWS
1 . THE TIGER IS A GENTLEMAN
Reviewed by J.C. Daniel 269
2. THE DANCE OF THE SARUS: ESSAYS OF A WANDERING NATURALIST
Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 269
3. THE SERPENT’S TONGUE
Reviewed by J.C. Daniel 270
4. THE FAUNA OF BANGALORE
Reviewed by Meghana Gavand 270
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
MAMMALS
1. Distribution of chital Axis axis (Erxleben
1777) in Buenos Aires Province, Argentina
By Bruno Carpinetti and Mariano L. Merino ... 271
2. Takin Budorcas taxicolor at Menla Reserve
Forest (3,050 in), east Sikkim: A westward
range extension and observations of unusual
behaviour
By Usha Ganguli-Lachungpa 272
3 . First record of occurrence of albino crestless
Himalayan porcupine Hystrix brachyura
Linnaeus, 1758 (Rodentia : Hystricidae) in
India
By Ajov Kumar Mandal and M.K. Ghosh 274
4. First record of Gangetic river dolphin,
Platanista gangetica at Pobitora Wildlife
Sanctuary, Assam
By Mrigen Barua 275
BIRDS
5. A pied harrier ( Circus melanoleucos) roost
in Sohagi-Barwa Wildlife Sanctuary,
Maharajganj, Uttar Pradesh, India
By Salim Javed 276
6. The greyheaded lapwing, Vanellus cine reus
(Blyth) in Kaliveli Tank, Tamil Nadu
By K.S. Gopi Sundar 277
7. Recent sightings of Vanellus gregarius
(Pallas) at Tal Chhapar and Revasa, Rajasthan
By Harkirat Singh Sangha 278
8. Additional sight records of slenderbilled gull
Larus genei from Gujarat
By B.M. Parasharya, K.L. Mathew,
A.G. Sukhadia and Aeshita Mukherjee 279
9. Multiple brooding of the little brown dove
Streptopelia senegalensis
By M. John George 280
10. Ashy mini vet Pericrocotus divaricatus
(Raffles) in Kanha National Park, Mandla
District, Madhya Pradesh
By Aasheesh Pittie and Amitabh Poddar 283
1 1 . Redvented bulbul Pycnonotus cafer feeding on
tail of house gecko Hemidactylus Jlaviviridis
By Satish Kumar Sharma 284
1 2. Comments on the bird list of Thattakad Bird
Sanctuary, Kerala
By V, Santharam 284
REPTILES
13. Ganges soft-shell turtle Aspideretus
gangeticus predating on nilgai Boselaphus
tragocamelus in Keoladeo National Park,
Bharatpur, Rajasthan
By Gargi and Randheera Singh 285
14. Strange death of a snake
By V.P.Ajith 286
AMPHIBIA
15. Size analysis and distribution of Jerdon’s bull
frog Hoplobatrachus crassus (Jerdon 1835)
in Assam
By S. Saikia, N.K. Choudhury, B. Hussain and
S. Sengupta 286
FISHES
16. First record of the sunfish Ranzania laevis
(Pennant) (Pisces : Osteichthyes : Perciformes
: Molidae) from the West Bengal Coast
By S. Kar, R. Chakraborty, S. Mitra and
T. K. Chatterjee 288
17. Fishes of Chimmony and Peechi-Vazhani
Wildlife Sanctuaries, Kerala, India
By K. Raju Thomas, C.R. Biju,
C.R. Ajithkumar and M. John George 289
1 8. New records of fishes from the Western Ghats
of Maharashtra
By M. Arunachalam, A. Sankaranarayanan,
J.A. Johnson, A. Manimekalan and
R. Soranam 292
INSECTS
19. Mantid fauna of Sanjay Gandhi National
Park, Mumbai, with some new records for
Maharashtra State
By Naresh Chaturvedi and
Vithoba Hegde 295
20. Recent record of Creobroter apicalis Saussure
(Insecta : Mantodea) from Pune, Maharashtra
and Kumta, Karnataka
By H.V. Ghate, Nilesh Rane and
Sachin Ranade 297
21. Sisyphus longipes (Oliver) (Coleoptera :
Scarabaeidae : Scarabaeinae) — A new record
for Andaman Islands
By K. Veenakumari and
Prashanth Mohanraj 298
22. Large scale emergence and migration of the
Common Emigrant butterflies Catopsilia
pomona (Family : Pieridae)
By A.M.K. Bharos 301
Cover photograph: Honeybees on Elephant
Bamboo Flower
K.C. Koshy
OTHER INVERTEBRATES
23. Trididemnum Delia Valle 1 88 1 , an unrecorded
genus of colonial ascidian from India
By V.K. Meenakshi 302
24 . Range extension for Strombus plicatus sibbaldi
(Sowerby) (Mollusca : Mesogastropoda :
Strombidae)
By Deepak Apte 304
25 . New record of Astenocypris papyracea (Sars
1 903), (Crustacea, Ostracoda) from West
Bengal, India
By K. Venkataraman 304
BOTANY
26. Some rare and uncommon legumes from
Garhwal Himalaya
By L.R. Dangwal and R.D. Gaur 309
27. Rediscovery of Wendlandia angustifolia
Wight ex Hook. f. (Rubiaceae), from Tamil
Nadu, a species presumed extinct
By M.B. Viswanathan, E. Harrison Premkumar
and N. Ramesh 311
28. Lactuca graciliflora DC. (Asteraceae) — An
addition to the flora of Himachal Pradesh
By M. Sharma and D.S. Dhaliwal 313
29. Anaphalis busua (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don)
DC., (Family: Asteraceae) — An interesting
new record from Bijnor (U.P.), India
By Athar Ali Khan 314
30. The identity of Hygrophila bengalensis
Mandal etal., (Family: Acanthaceae)
By S. Mitra and S. Bandyopadhyay 315
Editorial
Forty million years ago, honeybees appeared on earth in the Eocene period. They
acquired their social habit only 10 million years later. Honey bees are believed
to have originated in Africa and later spread to Europe and to Asia. They were
brought to the Americas and are now distributed all over the world. The true
honeybees belong to the genus Apis Linnaeus of the family Apidae. Seven
species of honeybees are known from the world. They are Apis clorsata Fabricius,
Apis cerana Fabricius Apis florea Fabricius, Apis mellifera Linnaeus,
Apis andreniformes Smith, Apis nigrocincta Smith and Apis koschenvnikovi
Enderlein. Except for the last two, all are found in the Indian subcontinent. The
bees arose from ancestors of Spheciformes, abandoned their predatory habit of
feeding on insect larvae or spiders and shifted to phytophagy. By mixing pollen
with nectar and honey or with floral oils, they prepared food for their larvae.
In the cover photograph, two species of honeybees namely Apis dorsata
dorsata Fabricius (larger form) and Apis cerana indica Fabricius (smaller form)
are seen foraging on the flowers of the bamboo Ochlandra travancorica (Beddome),
commonly known as irul, iral, or eeta in the local languages, as elephant bamboo
and reed bamboo in English. It is endemic to the southern Western Ghats and
grows at elevations of 1,000-2,500 m, as undergrowth in evergreen and semi-
evergreen forests, commonly along the banks of rivers and streams. It is
economically important, since its culms are used for paper pulp, mat making and
basket weaving. The mats are used for making ply bamboo. It is also used in rural
housing. The leaves are eaten by elephants.
Apis dorsata is the largest honeybee in the world and is unfit for domestication.
It builds its comb on inaccessible branches of trees. A comb may measure 1 to
5 metres in length. Each comb may contain 20-38 litres of honey, depending on its
size. Apis cerana, the smaller bee, is a species suitable for apiculture. The subspecies
Apis cerana indica Fabricius, known as the Indian honeybee, is seen in peninsular
India. These bees are most active in foraging on flowers, usually at a temperature
range of 25-28 °C and humidity of 70-80% R.H. The yield of honey is proportional
to the availability of bee pasturage in the locality. According to recent information,
the poison gland of Apis cerana contains a compound known as eicosenol in
quantities larger than in other species of bees. It is probable that the bee uses this
pheromone to mark the flowers rich in nectar, so that other bees of the colony can
locate the flowers quickly; or this may be an alarm pheromone to alert the hive
mates when an intruder comes to the hive. Strangely enough, while foraging on the
flowers of Ochlandra travancorica, both species damage the anthers.
T.C. NARENDRAN
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology,
Govt, of India,
FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL.
JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
August 2000
Vol. 97
No. 2
PHEASANT ABUNDANCE IN SELECTIVELY LOGGED AND UNLOGGED
FORESTS OF WESTERN ARUNACHAL PRADESH, NORTHEAST INDIA1
Aparajita Datta2
( With one text-figure)
Key words: Abundance, Amnachal Pradesh, kaleej pheasant, Lophura leucomelana lathami ,
logging, northeast India, peacock-pheasant, Polyplectron bicalcaratum,
red jungle fowl, Gallus gallus
Relative abundance of three pheasant species was compared along trails, across recently logged
forest, 20-25 years old logged forest, unlogged primary forest, a relatively disturbed primary
forest and a mixed-species plantation in Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary, and Doimara and Papum
Reserve Forests, Arunachal Pradesh, northeast India. The three pheasant species recorded were
the red jungle fowl {Gallus gallus), black-breasted kaleej pheasant ( Lophura leucomelana lathami)
and the grey peacock-pheasant ( Polyplectron bicalcaratum ). Overall pheasant abundance was
highest in unlogged forest and low in all other strata. No pheasants were sighted in the plantation.
All three species were most abundant in unlogged forest. The probable causes of the relatively
low abundance of pheasants in logged and disturbed forests are discussed especially in relation
to subsidiary impacts of logging such as increased human disturbance and hunting due to easier
access through logging roads.
Introduction
During a six month study on the responses
of arboreal mammals to selective logging in
western Arunachal Pradesh, India, the relative
abundance of three pheasant species was also
recorded systematically along trails. The
pheasant species were the red jungle fowl ( Gallus
gallus ), black-breasted kaleej pheasant ( Lophura
leucomelana lathami) and grey peacock-
pheasant ( Polyplectron bicalcaratum). These
species were compared across 5 categories of
traits, i.e., plantation, semi-disturbed forests, old
logged forests, recently logged and unlogged
primary forests.
‘Accepted July, 1998
2 Wildlife Institute of India
Post Bag 1 8, Dehra Dun 248 001 ,
Uttar Pradesh, India.
An earlier survey solely for pheasants in
the same area reported the occurrence of the grey
peacock-pheasant and the red jungle fowl (Kaul
and Ahmed 1992). The kaleej was not sighted
during that survey. The grey peacock-pheasant
was encountered in densely forested areas with
undulating terrain in the earlier survey. Its
presence was mostly ascertained from calls. Kaul
(1993) suggested that estimates of population
densities of peacock-pheasant and red jungle
fowl can be made from call counts in the Eastern
Himalaya.
Study Sites
The study sites were located in Pakhui
Wildlife Sanctuary (WLS) and Doimara and
Papum Reserve Forests (RF) in east and west
Kameng district, western Arunachal Pradesh
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2). AUG. 2000
177
PHEASANT ABUNDANCE IN SELECTIVELY LOGGED AND UNLOGGED FORESTS
(Fig. 1). Pakhui WLS covers an area of 862 sq.
km and is bounded on the north and west by the
Bhareli river, on the east by the Pakke river, and
the south by the Nameri WLS and reserve forests
of Assam. Doimara RF lies to the west of Pakhui
WLS in west Kameng district, while Papum RF
lies to the east, in east Kameng district. Both the
RFs fall in the Khellong Forest Division and
together cover about 300 sq. km. The area lies
in the foothills of the Himalaya and the terrain
is undulating and hilly. The altitude ranges from
200 to more than 1,500 m above msl. The
vegetation is tropical, semi-evergreen, with moist
areas near streams having a profuse growth of
bamboo, cane brakes and palms. The forest has
a typical layered structure with the major
emergent species being Tetrameles nudiflora,
Altingia excelsa and Ailanthus grandiflora.
There is a distinct middle storey; the understorey
is largely made up of shrubs such as
Clerodendron . The forests are rich in woody liana
and climber species as well as epiphytic orchids
and ferns.
The area has a great diversity of mamma-
lian fauna. The ungulates found here include
gaur ( Bos gciurus), sambar (Cervus unicolor ),
barking deer ( Muntiacus muntjac) and wild pig
( Sus scrofa). Elephants were sighted several
times in the sanctuary, and once in the plantation.
Carnivore fauna includes the tiger ( Panthera
tigris ) leopard (P. pardus ), clouded leopard
( Neofelis nebulosa), smaller cats and several
civet species. Three primate species namely,
rhesus macaque ( Macaca mulatto), Assamese
macaque (M. assamensis) and the capped langur
( Semnopithecus pileata) and four squirrel
species, the Malayan giant squirrel ( Ratufa
bicolor), Pallas red-bellied squirrel ( Callosciums
erythraeus ), hairy-bellied squirrel ( Callosciums
pygerythrus) and Himalayan striped squirrel
( Tamiops macclellandi) are the most commonly
encountered mammals. A total of 256 bird
species have been recorded from the area (Singh
1991, 1994, Datta et al. 1998).
Description of Census Trails
Plantation - Trail 1, Seijusa-Monai
(Papum RF): Trail walks totalled 34.5 km. A
logging road was used for the census. The altitude
ranged from 400 to 500 m above msl. The
plantation was mixed; the major species were
Terminalia myriocarpa, Duabanga grandiflora,
Phoebe goalparensis , Bombax ceiba, Gmelina
arborea and the exotic Tectona grandis. This
plantation borders the reserve forests of Assam.
There are settlements surrounding this area with
patches of cultivation and degraded forest. The
total area covered by the plantation is c. 3-4 sq.
km.
Semi-disturbed forests - Trails 2 & 3,
Khari (Pakhui WLS): A total of 30.94 km was
walked in this habitat. The two trails identified
for monitoring were replicated 7 times each.
These were elephant trails/paths at 450 to 550 m
above msl. The trails were adjacent to steep
gullies and nalas\ canes and palms were
abundant, bamboo clumps occurred along the
slopes. Cane extraction on a commercial basis
occurred till 1991. Cane-cutters occasionally
enter the forests from the adjacent reserve forests
of Assam. The area is adjacent to Nameri WLS,
Assam, and lies in the southern part of the
sanctuary. It has not undergone selective felling
in the past.
Old logged forest - Trail 4, Seijusa-
Khari (Pakhui WLS): Census walks totalled
27 km. A trail of 2.7 km was replicated 10 times
at altitudes ranging from 550 to 800 m above
msl. A patrolling trail cut by the Forest
Department staff in 1 994 was used. An area of
c. 4 sq. km had been selectively felled when the
Pakhui Sanctuary was a reserve forest, prior to
1978. This area also lies in the extreme
southeastern part of the sanctuary near the
Arunachal Pradesh-Assam border. Several
colonizing species such as Bauhinia purpurea
and Mallotus sp. common in secondary forests,
occurred here.
178
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
PHEASANT ABUNDANCE IN SELECTIVELY LOGGED AND UNLOGGED FORESTS
s
O
Q
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
179
Fig. 1 : Map of the Study area
PHEASANT ABUNDANCE IN SELECTIVELY LOGGED AND UNLOGGED FORESTS
Recently logged forest - Trails 5, 6 & 7,
Tipi, west of Bhareli river (Doimara RF): A
total of 53.28 km was covered in this habitat.
Three trails varying in length from 1.7 to 3 km
were replicated 8 times each. The altitude ranged
from 500 to 850 m above msl. The area is close
to Tipi with a human population of about 900.
Logging operations were active along two of the
trails and had concluded in the third trail. A
few small labour camps occurred in the logged
forest sites. Elephants and small trucks were
used to transport the logs to the two . sawmills
and one plywood mill nearby. Due to the
presence of both reserve forests and a sanctuary
on all sides, the forests in this region are
contiguous. The Bhareli river and Tezpur-
Bomdila highway act as the boundary between
Pakhui WLS and Doimara RF.
Unlogged primary forest - Trails 8, 9 &
10, Tipi, east of Bhareli river (Pakhui WLS):
Census walks totalled 4 1 .4 km. The three trails
were located near the southwest boundary of the
sanctuary across the River Bhareli from Tipi.
Two existing patrolling trails were used and one
additional trail had to be cut for the census walks.
A vast portion of the central and northern parts
of the sanctuary is quite inaccessible due to the
dense vegetation, hilly terrain and the lack of
trails. The sole village, Mabusa, to the south of
the sanctuary, has been relocated outside the
boundary of the sanctuary. One or two
settlements are present near the northern
boundary. The Bhareli river acts as a barrier to
human disturbance, though occasionally local
tribals may cross over. Therefore, most of Pakhui
WLS, except a small strip to the south, has
excellent undisturbed primary forest.
Methods
Five habitats were selected, based on their
logging history. The trails in the different
habitats were so selected as to be similar in
general vegetation type (though abundances of
various species and composition differed
somewhat), rainfall and altitude.
Ten trails, adding to a total of 187.12 km,
were walked in five habitats, each being
replicated 6-10 times during the study period
from December 1995 to April 1996. All trails
were walked in the morning, and the calls and
sightings of pheasants were recorded. Relative
pheasant abundance was compared using a
simple measure of encounter rate; numbers seen/
heard per km. Both calls and direct sightings
were used in the calculation of encounter rates.
Since sightings were few, statistical comparisons
were not made. Encounter rates were simply
calculated by dividing the total number of calls
and sightings in each habitat by the total distance
walked in each habitat.
Results and Discussion
Three pheasant species were recorded,
namely, the red jungle fowl ( Gallus gcillus ),
black-breasted kaleej pheasant (Lophura
leucomelana lathami) and the grey
peacock-pheasant (Polyplectron bicalcaratum).
All three species were recorded in unlogged and
logged forest. Only the peacock-pheasant was
heard in semi-disturbed forest along the trails,
though the red jungle fowl was heard/seen there
otherwise. The red jungle fowl and peacock-
pheasant were also recorded in the old logged
forest. No pheasant species were recorded in the
plantation. Partridges were also sighted twice
in the unlogged forest but could not be identified.
The white-cheeked partridge ( Arborophila
afrogulciris) has been reported earlier (Singh 1 994).
Overall abundance of pheasants was
highest in unlogged forest (0.70/km), n = 29
(calls and sightings). All other habitats had
much lower abundance (Table 1).
Though the peacock-pheasant was never
sighted, vocalization confirmed its presence in
all the habitats except the plantation. It was the
most abundant in unlogged forest (0.34/km, n
= 14 calls), followed by semi-disturbed forest
(0.16/km, n = 5 calls). They were heard only
180
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
PHEASANT ABUNDANCE IN SELECTIVELY LOGGED AND UNLOGGED FORESTS
Table 1
ENCOUNTER RATES OF PHEASANTS IN THE FIVE STRATA
Unlogged Forest
Semi-disturbed
Forest
Old logged Forest
Logged Forest
Plantation
Overall
0.70/km
0.16/km
0.11/km
0.11 /km
_
Red jungle fowl
0.10/km
-
0.07/km
0.09/km
-
Kaleej pheasant
0.26/km
-
-
0.02/km
-
Peacock- pheasant
0.34/km
0.16/km
0.04/km
*
-
* Heard call once, but not during trail walk
once each in the old logged forest and in logged
forest. This species was very vocal, calling
frequently from 0600 hrs onwards. Within India,
the peacock-pheasant occurs only in the
northeast, and is generally found in dense
evergreen and semi-evergreen forest. Like the
kaleej, it prefers to be near water, especially in
the breeding season (Johnsgard 1986). The
species reportedly thrives under conditions of
secondary forest succession (Johnsgard 1986),
but is highly vulnerable to snaring (Baker 1930).
Feathers of a dead bird were found in Khari;
trapping and snaring occurs occasionally.
Remains of peacock-pheasants have been seen
elsewhere in Arunachal Pradesh (Athreya and
Karthikeyan, unpubl. data; Kaul and Ahmed
1992 \pers. obs. 1996; Rashid Raza, pers. comm.
1995; Vidya Athreya, pers. comm. 1995). A
freshly killed specimen of peacock-pheasant and
several traps for pheasants were seen in West
Khasi and Garo hills in Meghalaya (A. Christy
Williams, pen’, comm. 1995).
Kaleej pheasant was sighted only in
unlogged forest and heard once each in old
logged forest and in logged forest. Kaleej was
sighted on ten occasions and a call was heard
once in unlogged primary forest (0.26/km). The
kaleej has an overall wide distribution and
survives well in a variety of disturbed and
undisturbed habitats and reportedly withstands
hunting pressure fairly well (Bump and Bohl
1961) . This is not borne out by the present
observations, since kaleej were sighted only in
unlogged forest. It is, however, not very vocal,
and overall abundance may thus have been
underestimated. All literature pertaining to this
species cites the importance of proximity to
water (Baker 1930, Ali and Ripley 1983,
Johnsgard 1986). Ample rock cover and
proximity to water are reported to be major
requirements for nesting (Johnsgard 1986).
Red jungle fowl was recorded in three
habitats during the trail walks. This species was
marginally more abundant in unlogged forest
(0.10/km) than logged forest (0.09/km) and old
logged forest (0.07/km). Red jungle fowl occurs
in a wide range of habitats, and is reportedly
more common in secondary forests associated
with abandoned clearings, or edges of bamboo
forest (Johnsgard 1986). During this survey, it
was found to be marginally more abundant in
unlogged forest than logged and old logged
forest. This could be related to more intense
hunting for pheasants in the logged areas or to
their being shy of human presence.
The dissimilar calling patterns of these
pheasant species could have biased the observed
encounter rates. In addition, the main calling
period for all these species is from March to May
(Johnsgard 1986). Kaul & Ahmed (1992)
sighted/heard more red jungle fowl than
peacock-pheasant and attributed this to their
more noisy habits, and propensity for feeding at
the edges of roads. During this study, I used only
the existing small trails in the forest which were
different from the ones used in the earlier survey
(Kaul and Ahmed 1992), hence red jungle fowl
were probably encountered less during this study.
The peacock-pheasant was the most commonly
encountered pheasant because of its frequent
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2). AUG. 2000
181
PHEASANT ABUNDANCE IN SELECTIVELY LOGGED AND UN LOGGED FORESTS
vocalization early in the morning. These birds
remain in dense undergrowth and are great
skulkers (Ali and Ripley 1983), therefore direct
sightings are rare. The kaleej pheasant does not
have a regular calling pattern and usually calls
only when flushed. Therefore, its abundance may
have been underestimated. Unlike the red jungle
fowl, kaleej are said to be usually silent during
the day (Ali and Ripley 1983).
It is surprising that there were so few
encounters with pheasants in the logged forest,
old logged forest and semidisturbed forest
despite the fact that all three sites had a profusion
of bamboo clumps in some areas, whereas
bamboo was not recorded in the vegetation plots
in unlogged forest. According to Ali and Ripley
( 1 983), all the 3 pheasant species discussed here
are partial to bamboo seeds. But mass flowering
of bamboo is sporadic, and therefore the presence
of bamboo may not be important to pheasant
abundance. These birds are largely omnivores,
feeding on grain, seeds, tubers, insects, small
snakes and lizards. Insect abundance was not
estimated for a comparison of food availability
between these areas, but reduced insect
abundance in logged forest has been reported
(Johns 1986).
Canopy cover and degree of disturbance
may be more important in affecting pheasant
abundance. Canopy cover, tree density and basal
area were reduced in logged forest and plantation
(Datta and Goyal 1997). Johns (1989) found that
terrestrial birds are more severely affected by
logging because of the effects of microclimatic
changes on the leaf litter fauna which were
entirely absent from recently logged forest.
Physiological considerations (heat and water
balance) may be more important in determining
the movement patterns of understorey birds than
local food abundance (Kan* and Freemark 1983).
Habitat changes, such as destruction of
understorey, affect all pheasants (Gaston 1982).
The reduced canopy cover and tree density in
logged forest and plantation definitely changes
the microclimate in the understorey due to
increased insolation. Semi-disturbed forest and
old logged forest, though similar in canopy cover
and tree density to unlogged forest, were subject
to human disturbance in the form of occasional
cane-cutters from Assam. There are also stray
reports and evidence of trapping of pheasants
by local tribals in this area.
Katti et al. (1992) reported that hunting
by the tribals is more severe in the foothill forests
near villages. This, coupled with increase in
non-tribal populations and road construction in
and around reserve forests (logged areas) results
in more disturbance. Pheasants and other large
birds such as hornbills are worst affected by
hunting (Katti et al. 1992). Johns (1986, 1989)
states that partridges (Phasianidae) do not
survive logging successfully, though the effects
on pheasants are not mentioned. Wilson and
Johns (1982) found that the great argus pheasant
(Argusianus argus) was most abundant in
unlogged primary forest, in reduced numbers in
3-5 years old logged forest, and totally absent
from disturbed, recently logged forests and
plantation. Therefore, reduced pheasant
abundance in logged and disturbed forests and
a total absence in the plantation seems to be
caused by a combination of modified habitat,
human presence and the consequent trapping
and snaring of these terrestrial birds. There is
also a possibility that the observed pattern is due
to these birds being shy of human presence in
logged and disturbed forests, the birds’ greater
alertness because of occasional trapping by the
local labour and tribals. Therefore, even though
logging may not directly affect them, the
construction of roads in logged areas leads to
increased accessibility to local people for
hunting. The movement of people and presence
of labour camps during and after logging
operations results in disturbance. The unlogged
primary forest, on the other hand, is little
disturbed by hunting or human presence,
consequently birds are not shy and can be sighted
182
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2). AUG. 2000
PHEASANT ABUNDANCE IN SELECTIVELY LOGGED AND UN LOGGED FORESTS
or heard at closer quarters. The greater numbers
of pheasants encountered in unlogged primary
forest, despite the dense vegetation and lower
visibility, is indicative of the importance of such
habitats to pheasants, rather than modified
habitats.
Acknowledgements
This work was carried out during field
work for a project funded by the Wildlife
R EFE
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of
India and Pakistan. Compact edition, Oxford University
Press, Bombay.
* Baker, E.C.S. (1930): Game birds of India, Burma and
Ceylon. Vol 3. John Bale and Son, London.
*Bump, G. & W.H. Bohl (1961): Red jungle fowl and kaleej
pheasants. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Special
Scientific Report, Wildlife No. 62.
Datta, A. & S.P. Goyal (1997): Responses of arboreal
mammals to selective logging in western Arunachal
Pradesh. Draft report submitted to Wildlife Institute of
India, Dehra Dun.
Datta, A., P. Singh, R.M. Athreya & S. Karthikeyan
( 1 998): Birds of Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary in western
Arunachal Pradesh. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 38(6):
91-96.
Gaston, A.J. (1982): Surveys, census, monitoring and
research: their role in pheasant conservation. In: Savage,
C. (Ed.) Pheasants in Asia, 1982. Proceedings of the
2nd International Pheasant Symposium, Srinagar,
Kashmir, pp. 33-39.
Johns, A.D. (1986): Effects of selective logging on the
ecological organisation of a peninsular Malaysian
rainforest avifauna. Forktail 1: 65-79.
Johns, A.D. ( 1 989): Recovery of a Peninsular Malayasian
■
Institute of India and I thank the Director,
WII for facilities provided. I thank the Arunachal
Pradesh Forest Department, for permission to
work in the field, especially Shri D.N. Singh
(DFO, Pakhui WLS), Shri Oni Dai (DFO,
Khellong Forest Division) and Shri Pratap Singh
(DCF, Itanagar) for help and support during field
work. Helpful comments on the manuscript
were given by Rashid Raza and Charudutt
Mishra.
ENC ES
rainforest avifauna following selective timber logging:
the first twelve years. Forktail 4: 89-106.
Johnsgard, P.A. (1986): The pheasants of the world.
Oxford University Press.
Karr, J.R. & K.E. Freemark ( 1 983): Habitat selection and
environmental gradients: dynamics in the ‘stable’
tropics. Ecology 64: 1481-1494.
Katti, M., P. Singh, N. Manjrekar, S. Mukherjee & D.
Sharma (1992): An ornithological survey in eastern
Arunachal Pradesh, India. Forktail 7: 75-89.
Kaul, R. (1993): Pheasant surveys in Arunachal Pradesh,
India. The WPA Journal XVII & XVIII, 1 992-1993.
Kaul, R. & A. Ahmed ( 1 992): Pheasant studies in northeast
India, Arunachal Pradesh. Unpublished report.
Singh, P. (1991): Avian and mammalian evidences in
Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary in East Kameng district,
Arunachal Pradesh. Arunachal Forest News 9(2): 1-10.
Singh, P. (1994): Recent bird records from Arunachal
Pradesh. Forktail JO: 65-104.
Wilson, W. & A.D. Johns (1982): Diversity and
abundance of selected animal species in undisturbed
forest, selectively logged forest and plantations in
East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Biol. Conserv. 24:
205-218.
* Not seen in original
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
183
FLORAL DIVERSITY OF GORIGANGA VALLEY IN
THE CENTRAL HIMALAYAN HIGHLANDS'
M.K. Pandit, Arun Bhaskar and Virendra Kumar* 2
( With one text-figure)
Key words: Himalaya, Goriganga valley, flora, diversity, endangered species
An extensive and intensive survey of the floral diversity of the Goriganga valley in the Central
Himalayan ranges was carried out. About 1,081 species of flowering plants belonging to 496
genera and 1 16 families were recorded. A number of plant taxa were found endemic to the area.
The valley was extremely rich in orchid species. Studies showed that a number of plant species,
represented by small population sizes recorded earlier, were found no more in the valley. It was
concluded that increasing biotic pressures would severely jeopardize the biological wealth of this
valley if conservation management plans are not implemented.
Introduction
Himalaya, the youngest mountain system
of the world, constitutes an important bridge
between floras of northwestern and western Asia,
Europe and southern peninsular India on the one
hand and the eastern Malesian, northeast Asian,
Sino-Japanese and northern Tibetan areas on the
other. The Himalayan uplift that took place in a
series of orogenies brought about a corresponding
change, not only in the climatic profile along
the altitudinal gradient, but also in the edaphic
factors of these uplands (Kumar and
Subramaniam 1985). These changes influenced
and paved the way for the immigration of plant
species from far off regions, east and west, their
establishment in the ecosystems, and speciation
and extinction during various geological ages.
The trend of colonization and formation of
stabilized communities followed by speciation in
the Himalaya continued even in the Modern Age
(Raina et al. 1978, Kumar 1983). Phyto-
geographically and ecologically, it is, therefore,
one of the most complex biomes in the Indian
'Accepted April, 2000
2Centre for Inter-disciplinary Studies of Mountain & Hill
Environment,
University of Delhi South Campus,
Benito Juarez Marg, New Delhi 1 1 0 02 1 .
subcontinent with marked east-west and south-
north transitions. It serves as a biological
platform for overlapping Indo-Chinese and
Middle Asiatic amphitheatres (Puri et al. 1983).
The geophysical features of the Himalayan
region are marked by geological instability,
leading to an active process of erosion, massive
moraine deposits, precariously perched glacial
lakes, avalanches, mudflows, high snowfall and
monsoon precipitation. Besides, the biological
components, both terrestrial and aquatic,
constitute an intricate ecological system of this
region. The serai plant communities on the newly
stabilized debris fans, in the lower reaches, and
moraines in the higher valleys, hold the debris
masses, which would otherwise end up in stream
and river channels, thereby disrupting the
ecological balance of the riverine and riparian
ecosystems (Kumar et al. 1993). The keystone
plant species in various ecosystems in the region
are essential for maintenance of their structure
and function, including prevention of soil loss
and regulation of hydrological cycle (Ehrlich and
Mooney 1983). The vegetation cover provides
the human population with vital life support and
socio-economic security. Timber, fish and
medicinal herbs are primary resources for the
human population living in these Himalayan
highlands on a marginal economy.
184
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
FLORAL DIVERSITY OF GORIGANGA VALLEY
Though studies on the flora of Goriganga
valley have been conducted by earlier workers
like Sahni and Raizada ( 1 955), Rao ( 1 959), Nair
(1966), Arora and Prasad (1980), Pant and
Naithani (1981), Rawat (1982), Kalakoti and
Pangtey (1982), Kalakoti et al. (1983), Malhotra
and Balodi ( 1 984 a,b,c,d,e), Malhotra and Balodi
(1985), Malhotra etal. (1985), Seidenfaden and
Arora (1982) and Balodi (1988), they have
concentrated only on specific localities or taxa.
A comprehensive account of the floristic aspects
was not available. This study attempts to present
an integrated account of the floristic composition
of the valley and changes in recent years.
Study Area
Fig. 1 depicts the study area and location
of the Goriganga valley. The valley forms the
easternmost part of the Kumaon Himalaya in the
vicinity of the Indo-Nepal border. The valley lies
between 79° 58' 50" to 80° 29' 36” E long, and
29° 45' 3” to 30° 18' N lat. The Goriganga valley
is bounded in the north by the Tibetan plateau
and in the east by the Panchachuli ridge, which
separates it from the adjoining Dhauliganga
valley. The Nanda Devi massif lies northwest,
while the Nandakot-Bankatiya ridge marks the
western boundary. Kalsin Danda (ridge) marks
the southern boundary. The Goriganga river
originates from Milam glacier (3,600 m) and
traverses a distance of 100 km before merging
with River Kali at Jauljibi (600 m). The
Goriganga valley, with a catchment area of 2,230
sq. km covers sub-tropical to alpine climatic
zones, which coincide with the Lesser, Greater
and Tethyan Himalayan geological domains.
The Lesser Himalayan area, south of
Munsyari also known as Goriphat, is spread from
Jauljibi to Madkot and has the largest human
population, with a density of 15 individuals per
sq. km. This area is intensively terraced for
agriculture and has a rich cultural and ethnic
diversity. It enjoys a hospitable climate,
numerous freshwater streams, and also harbours
a rich and diverse vegetation cover and wildlife.
The Greater Himalayan domain, beginning
from Munsyari upstream to Rilkot, is
characterised by a harsher climate, narrow
valleys, deep gorges and steep slopes prone to
massive landslides and avalanches. This area is
thickly forested with moru oak ( Quercus
floribunda), kharsu oak (Q. semeccirpifolia) and
mixed broad-leaf coniferous forests. These forest
types harbour a rich diversity of economically
important species, like timber-yielding trees,
medicinal herbs and plants of horticultural value.
In the past, this inhospitable terrain had no
permanent human settlements, and even today
it remains more or less uninhabited.
The region lying beyond the Greater
Himalaya, the Tethys, is characterised by gentle
relief, w'ide U-shaped valleys with huge moraine
deposits along the river and stream channels
having low gradient. The winters are much
prolonged with minimum temperature falling to
-20 °C, and a high frequency of avalanches.
However, the mineral rich moraine deposits,
numerous streams and brooks, and gentle
gradient of the area offered habitable terrain to
earlier human settlers from across the border —
the Tibetan highland. They brought with them
different social and cultural norms and a different
ethnic stock, and occupied the territory extending
all along the Tethyan belt in the Himalayan
region.
Material and Methods
The plant collections were made during
different treks and expeditions to the Milam
glacier, Mandakani valley, Sera gad, Rachi gad,
Goshi gad, Chhiplakot areas, and the Goriganga
valley proper, over a period of two years, in
different seasons. The plant specimens were
identified with the help of floras and checklists
from previous explorations of this area. Some
specimens were compared with the type specimen
JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
185
FLORAL DIVERSITY OF GORIGANGA VALLEY
LOCATION
i Of
' KUMACN
Nanda Devi (E)/>$
7.434 m
X
Pass
▲
Peak
o-
River
International Boundary
—
State Boundary
District Boundary
Basin Boundary
Villages
5000 m
0 5
10 Km
Jauljibi
600m
Fig. 1 : Location map of Goriganga basin showing major tributaries and places
186
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
FLORAL DIVERSITY OF GORIGANGA VALLEY
at the herbarium of the Botanical Survey of India,
Dehra Dun. An inventory was prepared after
plant collection, recording and authentication of
species.
Results and Discussion
Taxonomic Diversity: A total of 1,081 species
of flowering plants were recorded (of the more
than 3,000 in Himalaya and 20,000 in India).
These belong to 496 genera (out of the 2,917 in
India) and 116 families (out of the 327 in India).
Out of 1 1 6 families represented in the valley, 100
are dicots and the rest are monocots, the ratio
of monocot to dicot species is 1:4.41 (192
monocots, 850 dicots). The predominant families
and the number of genera and species represented
by them in the valley are given in Table 1 . Among
the angiosperm genera, each of the following
were represented by 10 or more species:
Potentilla (19), Saxifraga (19), Astragalus (13),
Gentiana (13), Pedicularis (13), Saussurea ( 13),
Sedum (13), Corydalis (11), Stellaria (11) and
Rubus (10).
Table 1
PREDOMINANT FAMILIES, THEIRGENERA AND
SPECIES IN GORIGANGA VALLEY
Family
Genera
Species
Asteraceae
39
83
Orchidaceae
36
69
Rosaceae
19
69
Poaceae
35
58
Fabaceae
24
55
Ranunculaceae
13
50
New Records of Plant Species: During
the past 20 years, many new species have been
recorded from the Goriganga valley which are
either new records for West Himalaya or Kumaon
Himalaya. Malhotra and Balodi (1985) reported
Salix lindleyana var. microphylla and Epilobium
trilectorum , which are new records for
India. Balodi and Malhotra (1984) for the first
time recorded Ribes griffithii from West
Himalaya. Anemone trullifolia , Aconitum atrox.
Delphinium viscosum and Saussurea
polystephoides are the new records for west
Himalaya reported by Rawat ( 1 982). Similarly,
there have been new records for northwest
Himalaya from Goriganga valley:
Crassocephalum crepedioides by Kaiakoti and
Pangtey (1982), Oxalis tetraphylla by Kaiakoti
et al. (1983), and Elatostemma sessilis by
Malhotra and Balodi (1985). We also recorded
these taxa in Goriganga valley.
The most striking feature of the flora of
this area is the number of new records for
Kumaon Himalaya. Rawat (1982) reported a
number of new species from Goriganga valley
which are as follows: Aconitum atrox , Anemone
elongata , Beibersteinia odora , Briza media ,
Chrysoplenium carnuosum , Hedinia tibetica ,
Potentilla fruticosa var. rigida, P. nivea var.
himalaica , Polygonatum graminifolium,
Sibbaldia cuneata var. micrantha and
Stellaria depauperata. Arora (1980) reported a
number of new species of orchids, namely
Dendrobium porphyrochilum , Eria muscicola ,
E. reticosa , Gastrochilus acutifolius , Kingidium
deliciosum , Malaxis rheedi , Oberonia
caulescens , O. griffithiana, Ponerorchis nana
and Thelasis longifolium. Our field studies
confirm the presence of all these orchid species
in various habitats of the valley. This
concentration of orchid species is an unusual
feature of western Himalaya, where orchids are
not found with such frequency and abundance
as in the eastern Himalaya.
Sahni and Raizada (1955), during their
expedition to Panchachuli, made new records for
the Kumaon Himalaya, namely Anemone
tetrasepala , Ranunculus laetus and Salix
oxycarpa. Generally, intensive exploration of
inhospitable areas leads to the discovery of new
plant species. Some of the potential areas in
Goriganga valley, which are likely to harbour
new plant species are the Ralam valley,
Chhiplakot range, Gwars (meadows) in the
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2), AUG. 2000
187
FLORAL DIVERSITY OF GORIGANGA VALLEY
Panchachuli and Bankatiya ranges and forests
around Bogudiyar.
Endemism: There are nearly 30% dicots
endemic to the Himalaya (Puri et al. 1983). Some
of the endemic Himalayan plant taxa which are
also present in the Goriganga valley are
Meconopsis aculeata, Ougeinia oojeinensis ,
Cortia lindleii , Nardostachys jatamansi ,
Aechmanthera gossypiana, Hemiphragma
heterophyllum , Picrorhiza kurrooa , Falconeria
himalaica, Phlogacanthus thyrsiformis ,
Dodecadenia grandiflora , Eria occidentalis and
Flickingeria hesperis. The most interesting of
these is Falconeria himalaica , a rare plant, which
was recorded near Munsyari and has a very
limited distribution, i.e. only in the Garhwal and
Kumaon Himalaya.
Monotypic Genera: Goriganga valley
abounds in monotypic genera, which are as
follows: Asperugo procumhens (Boraginaceae),
Boeninghausinia albiflora (Rutaceae),
Circaester agrestis (Circaesteraceae), Falconeria
himalaica and Hemiphragma heterophyllum
(Scrophulariaceae), Cortia lindleii (Apiaceae),
Parochetus communis , Ougeinia oojeinense
(Fagaceae) and Oxyria digyna (Chenopodiaceae).
The presence of endemic species and
monotypic genera indicates active processes of
speciation in this region. Moreover, the majority
of these species are polyploids (Kumar and
Subramaniam 1985), clearly pointing out their
neo-endemic nature (Lewis 1972).
Epiphytic Flora: Angiospermic epiphytes
occurring in the valley mostly belong to the
families Orchidaceae and Asclepiadaceae. There
are 42 epiphytic orchid species, which are
described later in this paper. Other epiphytic flora
of the valley includes Hoya lanceolata and
H. longifolia. There is an abundance of epiphytic
ferns too. Lycopodium annotinum , Polypodium
linearis , P. flocculosum are mainly found near
Bogudiyar. The richness of the epiphytic flora
in the valley seems to be a result of the
geophysical environment, marked by the
presence of numerous streams, river channels and
warm temperate conditions at lower elevations,
giving rise to high humidity in which epiphytes
thrive.
Parasitic Flora: Parasitic flora in the
valley belongs to the families Loranthaceae,
Orchidaceae and Orobanchaceae. Partial
parasites of family Loranthaceae are Korthalsella
opuntia on pine ( Pinus roxburghiana) (at Kanar),
Scurrula elata on Rhododendron arbor eum (at
Rathi, Bogudiyar and Mandakani valley), Viscum
album on pine and toon ( Cedrela toona ) (between
Madkot and Baram), and V. articulatum (around
Gandhura and Madkot). The orchids
Corallorhiza trifida (a root parasite) and
Gastrodia orobanchoides (a total plant parasite)
were recorded from Martoii grasslands and
Bhakuna forest in the Mandakani valley,
respectively. Obligate parasitic herbs such as
Orobanche cernua , O. epithymum (at Milam)
and O. solmsii (at Burphu) on the roots of Thymus
serpyllum were also recorded.
Insectivorous Flora: Rao (1959) recorded
a population of the insectivorous Pinguicula
alpina from Martoii, but only a small patch was
observed during the present survey. Similarly,
Utricularia kumaonense was recorded around
Saba Udiyar near Pilti gad bridge by Pant and
Naithani (1981). However, this plant could not
be found during our surveys in the valley,
indicating the possibility of threats to its survival.
Such pressures could prove fatal to a species,
particularly with small population size, restricted
distribution and smaller niche width (Pandit and
Babu 1998).
Orchid Flora: The orchids are one of the
largest families of flowering plants in the world,
but their distribution is restricted. The family is
rich in species diversity, but the population sizes
are very small. The reasons for their restricted
distribution and small populations are the
epiphytic habit of the majority of species and their
host preference, though not host specificity.
These characteristics make them highly
188
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
FLORAL DIVERSITY OF GORIGANGA VALLEY
vulnerable to destruction. The felling of even a
single tree destroys many well-established orchid
individuals, if not species (Kumar et al. 1993).
Goriganga valley harbours a rich wealth
of orchid flora. There are nearly 69 species, of
which 43 (68%) are epiphytic and only a small
number are terrestrial, with a few of these being
lithophytes (Table 2). About 55-60% of the
species are concentrated in the stretch between
Balmara, Baram, Goshi gad, Sera gad and
Madkot (600- 1 ,200 m). Epiphytic orchids require
high relative humidity for growth and survival.
Such a high concentration of orchids in this
stretch of Goriganga valley is due to its high
relative humidity. The various species are
usually seen on pine, banj oak ( Quercus
leucotrichophora), toon, mawa ( Engelhardtici
spicata ) and rhododendrons. Many of these have
preference for a particular tree species.
The orchid laden trees chiefly occur
between 800 m and 1,500 m. Most of these trees
Table 2
EPIPHYTIC ORCHIDSPECIESANDTHEIR
LOCATIONS IN GORIGANGA VALLEY
Plant species
Area
Acampe rigida
Goshi gad
Aerides multiflorum
Kanar
Bulbophyllum affine
Rachi gad fan
B. careyamun
Rachi gad fan
B. cylindraceum
Rachi gad fan
B. polyrhizum
Daphia Dhura
B. replans var. acuta
Gandhura West
B. secundum
Gandhura West
B. cf. yokunense
Daphia Dhura
Coelogyne cristata
Daphia Dhura
C. fimbriata
Daphia Dhura
C. ovalis
Goshi gad
C. stricta
Seraghat
Cymbidium hookerianum
Daphia Dhura
Dendrobium amoenum
Goshi gad
D. denudans
Seraghat
D. herbaceum
Goshi gad
D. porphyrochilum
Daphia Dhura
D. primulinum
Daphia Dhura
Erin excavata
Gandhura
E.fava
Madkot
E. muscicola
Kanar
E. occidentalis
Daphia Dhura
colonise boulder deposited fans of various
channels draining into Goriganga mainly on its
left bank. The right bank offers little scope for
such trees and orchids to grow, because of steep,
exposed slopes where humidity is very low. The
one exception to this is Gandhura Reserve Forest
block between Balmara and Bangapani, on the
right bank of Goriganga, where the trees support
many orchid species. The left bank also has
highly humid, suitable habitats for orchids to
colonise trees. Notable niches of this 'orchid-tree
association’ are located mainly in the Daphia
Dhura reserve forest block and catchments of
Goshi gad, Rachi gad and Sera gad. These niches
are narrow, with areas varying from 0.5 to 1.0
sq. km. Such microhabitat and niche specificity
makes orchid species vulnerable to extinction in
the event of small perturbations in their habitat
(Reid and Miller 1989).
Most of the orchid species represented in
the valley have phyto-geographical links with
those of northeast Himalayan and Sino-
Himalayan region. Seidenfaden and Arora ( 1982)
have pointed out that the orchid flora of
Goriganga valley is being depleted rapidly by the
destruction of the natural habitat on an
exponential scale. This means a total extinction
of epiphytic orchid species with an irretrievable
loss of genetic diversity. Ever-increasing biotic
pressure by deforestation has added to this
malady. Seidenfaden and Arora (1982) have
strongly recommended this area for the
establishment of an orchid sanctuary.
Considering the fact that such orchid habitats
are few and far between in the northwest
Himalaya, this recommendation needs to be
urgently considered and implemented.
Terrestrial orchids grow in the valley in
areas with high relative humidity (70-85%).
Moist, thick oak-rhododendron leaf litter, and
the alpine meadows of Martoli and Ralam, where
there is adequate water supply, are the natural
habitats of terrestrial orchid species. These
orchids form the ground vegetation in thick
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2). AUG. 2000
189
FLORAL DIVERSITY OF GORIGANGA VALLEY
forests of oak (morn, kharsu and banj) and burans
(. Rhododendron arboreum ), and on rocks covered
with thick layers of moss. Many orchid species
were found between Raragari and Bogudiyar, and
many more in the Madkani Reserve Forests and
meadows of Panchachuli.
During 1 980s, ten new orchid species were
reported from this area (Arora 1980), which is
indicative of its unexplored biological diversity.
In some localities, under intense biotic pressure,
it is likely that many species have already become
extinct which perhaps were never recorded
(Kumar et al. 1993). There is also every
possibility that biological speciation might be
arrested in the changed environment due to
increasing biotic pressures. Due to all these
negative impacts, a number of orchid species
have already become rare (17% of the total
species) and have been placed in the Red data
book (Nayar and Sastry 1987, 1988, 1990).
Orchids are important not only from the botanical
point of view but also for their high medicinal
and ornamental value. Some, like Dactylorhiza
hatagirea, are of great medicinal value (Kumar
1986, Chopra et al. 1992).
Endangered Flora: Topographical varia-
tion and diverse microclimatic conditions have led
to the formation of many specialised ecological
niches and habitats in the Himalayan highlands
(Pandit and Babu 1998). Such niches are inhabited
by a number of orchid species in the Goriganga
valley. Many new species have been recorded in
the valley since 1 950 by various workers, described
earlier, but these species are represented by small
populations in a particular habitat. Many of these
taxa are endemic to this region, a common feature
of the Himalaya (Kumar 1968).
Deforestation at lower limits, over-grazing
and indiscriminate collection of medicinal plants
in the higher reaches has led to irretrievable loss
in the genetic diversity of the Himalaya (Pandit
and Babu 1998). Our observations based on field
surveys and earlier studies of Arora (1980), Pant
and Naithani (1981) and Malhotra and Balodi
(1984 a,b,c,d,e), show that several species are
rarely seen in the valley, though these were well
represented earlier. Table 3 shows some of the
species with an endangered status and restricted
distribution in the Goriganga valley.
Table 3
PLANT SPECIES OF RESTRICTED/RARE
OCCURRENCE IN GORIGANGA VALLEY
Botanical Name
Place restricted to
Aconitum deinorrhizum
Saba Udiyar, 4,000 m
Aconitum heterophyllum
Milam, 3,600 m
Arctium lappa
Ralam, 3,000 m
Briza media
Ralam, 3,400 m
Cassia leschenaultiana
Bui-Ralam, 1 ,500 m
Christolea himalayensis
Ralam glacier, 4,300 m;
Untadhura 4,500 m
Codonopsis ovata
Ralam, 3,000 m
Cornus macrophyllus
On way to Bui, 1 ,500 m
Cymbidium hoo/cerianum
Daphia Dhura, 1 ,600 m
Cypripedium himalaicum
Bhujani gad, 3,000 m
Elsholtzia ciliata
Ralam, 2,000 m
Eulophia ucbii
Gargia, 900 m
Falconeria himalaica
Panchachuli, 3,800 m;
Munsyari, 2,700 m
Gentiana dentosa
Ralam, 4,000 m
Goodyera fusca
Bazarganga- Ralam, 4,000 m
Hypericum monanthemum
Ralam, 4,000 m
Inula grandiflora
Ralam, 4,000 m
Meconopsis aculeata
Ralam, 3,200 m
Nomocharis nana
Ralam, 3,800 m
Oberonia wightiana
Daphia Dhura, 2,000 m
Orchis habenarioides
Ralam, 3,500 m
Podophyllum hexandrum
Ralam, 3,200 m
Rheum moorcroftiana
Chhirthi, 3,000 m
Saussurea bracteosa
Ralam, 3,600 m
Saxifraga flagellaria
On way to Bui, 1 ,500 m
Sedum heterodontum
Ralam, 2,900 m
S. hookeri
Ralam, 4,000 m
Smithia ciliata
Bui -Ralam, 1,500 m
Utricularia kumaonense
Pilti bridge-Saba Udiyar,
3,000 m
Vigna capensis
Bui-Ralam, 1,800 m
The valley also provides specific habitats
to many plant taxa, which are included in the
list of ‘Threatened Plants of India’ by Jain and
Sastry (1980). These endangered or threatened
species are: Aconitum deinorrhizum , A.
heterophyllum , Ajuga brachystemma , Carex
atrata , Cerastium, thorns onii , Corallorhiza
190
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
FLORAL DIVERSITY OF GORJGANGA VALLEY
trifida, Cypripedium cordigerum , C.
himalaicum , C. insigne, Dactylorhiza hatagirea.
Ephedra gerardiana, Eulophia dabia , Gastrodia
orobanchoides , Gentiana kurroo , Herminium
duthiei, Hoya longifolia, Kobresia duthiei ,
Lilium polyphyllum, Nardostachys grandiflora ,
Orchis habenarioides , Podophyllum hexandrum,
Polygonatum gramini folium, P. verticillatum.
Rheum australe and L/o/a kunawarensis.
However, some of these plant species are
represented by reasonably good population sizes,
albeit in areas less frequented by humans and
where biotic disturbances are few. The local
villagers have been using these species
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We thank the National Hydro-electric
Power Corporation Ltd., New Delhi, for
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or little known plants from Kumaon. Indian J. For.
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■ no
192
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2). AUG. 2000
HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS OF BUTTERFLIES IN THE
PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, KERALA, INDIA1
V.V. SUDHEENDRAKUMAR, C.F. BlNOY, P. V. SURESH AND GEORGE MATHEW2
( With one text-figure)
Key words: Lepidoptera, diversity, habitats, forest, Kerala, Parambikulam Sanctuary
Habitat associations of 124 butterfly species were determined by analysing species records from
five habitat types in the Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala. The butterflies recorded
belonged to 75 genera and 9 families. The families Nymphalidae, Pieridae, Lycaenidae and
Satyridae were represented by the maximum number of species. Thirty-three species were present
altogether in all the habitat types in the sanctuary. Fifteen species were found to be habitat
specific, namely Papilio buddha, Pathysa antiphates , Pachliopta pandiyana , Pantoporia ranga ,
Pareronia Valeria hippia , Zipoetis saitis, Oriens concinna , Virachola perse ghela , Zesius
chrysomallus in the evergreen forests and Jxias marianne , 1. pyrene , Colot is etrida , C. danae ,
C. fausta , Ypthima ceylonica ceylonica in the dry deciduous forests. Tropical wet evergreen
forests possessed the greatest butterfly diversity in Parambikulam, followed by semi-evergreen
and moist deciduous habitats. Significant reduction in butterfly diversity was observed in both
dry deciduous habitats and teak plantations. Out of the butterflies recorded, 1 0 species are narrow
endemic to Western Ghats and 1 8 species have protected status.
Introduction
Among invertebrates, butterflies are
suitable for ecological studies, as the taxonomy,
geographic distribution and status of many
species are relatively well known. These insects,
which are mostly phytophagous, serve as primary
herbivores in the food chain and are also useful
as pollinators of many angiosperms. As many
butterflies are good bio-indicators of the
environment, they can be used to identify
ecologically important landscapes for conserva-
tion purposes.
Habitat is the single most important
requisite for the proliferation and conservation
of a butterfly species (Gilbert and Singer 1975,
New 1990-92). All species prefer particular
habitats, closely related to their life history:
breeding behaviour, larval and adult food
resources, etc. In many tropical countries, the
rapid destruction of forest wealth has severely
affected these butterfly habitats, which are slowly
‘Accepted August, 1 999
2Division of Entomology, Kerala Forest Research Institute,
Peechi 680 653, Trichur, Kerala, India.
changing into hostile environs (Wells et al.
1983). The process has diverse ecological
consequences. Many species, which were once
common, have become rare. This in turn
adversely affects the diversity and abundance of
plant species dependent upon them. The
identification of important landscapes and their
conservation is, therefore, very important.
The butterfly fauna of India is quite well
known (Evans 1932, Talbot 1939, 1947,
Wynter-Blyth 1957, Larsen 1987, 1988).
However, very few studies were conducted in the
Western Ghats of Kerala (Fergusson 1891, Fraser
1930, Mathew and Rahmathulla 1993, Palot et
al. 1997). An attempt is made here to discuss
the habitat preferences of butterflies in the
Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, an important
tropical forest location in Kerala.
Study Area
Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary (Fig. 1),
a part of the Western Ghats, is situated in the
Palghat district, Kerala (76° 35' E and 76° 50' E
and between 10° 20' N and 10° 26' N). It opens
up as a wide valley between the Nelliyampathy
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
193
HABITA TASSOCIA TIONS OF BUTTERFLIES
ranges in the north and Anaimalais in the south.
The Sanctuary has a total area of 270 sq. km and
a mean elevation of 600 m above msl. The
vegetation is highly complex, a combination of
Malabar and Deccan elements (Sebastine and
Ramamurthy 1966). Different natural habitats
include 1 ) the west coast tropical evergreen forest,
2) west coast semi-evergreen forest, 3) south
Indian moist deciduous forest, and 4) south
Indian dry deciduous forest. The man-made
habitats include plantations of teak and
eucalyptus covering 90 sq. km and 3 sq. km
respectively, and small patches of bamboo and
reeds. About 28 sq. km of the Sanctuary are
occupied by the reservoir. The microhabitats in
the Sanctuary include marshy fields or vayals
and banks of rivers and streams.
Material and Methods
As part of a study on the diversity of a
selected group of insects during 1995-97,
observations were made by laying belt transects
in the Karienshola (evergreen forests),
Ammakundu (moist deciduous forests),
Thekkady-Keerappady (dry deciduous forests)
and Thunacadavu (teak plantations) areas from
June 1996 to May 1997. These sites were chosen
as representatives of the habitat types in the study
area. Each transect was covered twice in a month,
between 1000 hrs and 1400 hrs, and observations
including the identity of the butterflies
encountered were recorded. Sample specimens
were collected only if they were needed for
identification. Occasional observations were
made in other parts of the Sanctuary like Poopara,
Orukombankutty, Kuriarkutty, Velayudhankayi,
Seechali and Thellikkal.
The identification was done with the help
of butterfly collections in the Kerala Forest
Research Institute, Peechi, the National
Collections at the Zoological Survey of India and
the Pusa Collections, Indian Agricultural
Research Institute, New Delhi, and with
reference to Wynter-Blyth (1957) and D’Abrera
(1982, 1985, 1986).
Based on their occurrence in different
habitats, the butterflies were categorised as
follows:
1 . Common (C) - Present in 4 or more habitats
2. Uncommon (UC) - Present in 2-3 habitats
3. Rare (R) - Present in 1 habitat only
Results
Butterflies of 124 species, belonging to 75
genera and 9 families were collected and identified.
A list of species with their habitat associations is
given in Table 1. Most of the butterflies collected
belonged to Nymphalidae (28 species), Piendae
(22 species), Lycaenidae (20 species), Satyridae
(16 species) and Papilionidae (15 species).
Butterfly associations in different habitats
in the study area are discussed below.
Tropical evergreen forests: In Parambi-
kulam, such forests are seen in Karianshola,
Pulikkal, Karappara and Orukomban areas. Small
patches of evergreen forests also occur at Kanmala-
gopuram and Shettiwaramalai. Butterflies like
Papilio buddha , P. pans, Pathysa antiphates. Idea
malabarica malabarica , Vindula erota saloma ,
Parthenos sylvia virens etc., are seen in the forest
canopies of this habitat. The understorey is
occupied mostly by shade loving species that are
excellent mimics of their surroundings like Lethe
rohria neelgheriensis, Ypthima spp. and Melanitis
spp. Species like Cethosia nietneri mahratta,
Cupha erymanthis maja , Catopsilia spp., Papilio
helenus , Tagiades litigiosa and Celaenorrhinus
ambareesa are observed in forest clearings formed
as a result of tree fulls.
Semi-evergreen forests: Semi-evergreen
forests appear where evergreen forests merge into
moist deciduous forests. The vegetation is a
combination of both evergreen and moist
deciduous elements. Butterflies present here are
common to both evergreen and moist deciduous
forests. Species like Papilio helenus , Char axes
194
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2), AUG. 2000
HABITA TASSOCIA TIONS OF BUTTERFLIES
Table 1
DISTRIBUTION OF BUTTERFLIES IN VARIOUS
HABITATS IN THE STUDY AREA
Table 1 (contd.)
DISTRIBUTION OF BUTTERFLIES IN VARIOUS
HABITATS IN THE STUDY AREA
Family /Species
Habitats
Family / Species
Habitats
PAPILIONIDAE EVG
SEV
MDF
DDF
PLN
EVG
SEV
MDF
DDF
PLN
Graphium sarpedon
J. iphita pluvialis *
*
*
*
*
teredon Felder
*
*
*
*
*
Fruhstorfer
G. agamemnon Linnaeus
*
*
*
*
*
Kaniska canace viridis
G. do son eleius
Evans *
*
*
Fruhstorfer
*
*
Moduza procris Cramer *
*
*
*
Pachliopta aristolochiae
Neptis hylas varmona
Linnaeus
*
*
*
*
+
Moore *
*
*
*
*
P. hector Linnaeus
*
*
*
*
*
N. jumbah jumbah Moore *
*
*
*
P. pandiyana Moore
*
Pantoporia hordonia Stoll *
*
*
Papilio polytes thesus
P. ranga (Moore) S
Cramer
*
*
*
*
*
Parthenos sylvia virens
P. demoleus Linnaeus
*
*
*
*
*
Moore *
*
P. paris tamilana Moore
*
*
*
Phalanta phalanta Drury *
*
*
P. buddha Westwood
*
Tanaecia lepidea miyana
P. helenus Linnaeus
*
*
*
*
Fruhstorfer *
*
*
P. polymnestor parinda
Vanessa cardui Linnaeus *
*
*
Moore
*
*
*
*
*
Vindula erota saloma
P. dravidarum
Swinhoe *
*
*
*
Wood-Mason
*
*
AMATHUSIIDAE
Pathysa antiphates
Discophora lepida lepida
(Fabricius)
*S
Moore *
*
Troides minos Cramer
*
*
*
*S
*
SATYRIDAE
NYMPHALIDAE
Lethe rohria neelgheriensis
Cethosia nietneri mahratta
Guerin *
*
*
*
Felder
*
*
*
L. europa Fabricius *
*
Charaxes bemardus imna
Melanitis leda leda Drury *
*
*
*
Butler
*
*
M. phedima varaha Moore *
*
*
*
Cirrochroa thais thais
Mycalesis anaxias anaxias
Fabricius
*
*
*
Hewitson
*
*
*
Cupha erymanthis maja
M. igilia Fruhstorfer *
*
*
Fruhstorfer
*
*
*
M. patnia junonia Butler *
*
*
Ariadne ariadne indica
M. perseus Fabricius *
*
*
Moore
*
*
*
*
*
M. mineus polydecta
A. merione merione
Cramer *
*
*
*
Cramer
*
*
*
*
*
M. vis ala Moore *
*
*
Polyura athamas athamas
Orsotriaena medus
Drurv
*
*
*
*
mandat a Moore *
*
*
Euthalia lubentina arasada
Ypthima ceylonica ceylonica
Fruhstorfer
*
*
*
Hewitson
*
E. aconthea meridionalis
Y. baldus madras a Evans *
*
*
*
*
Fruhstorfer
*
*
*
Y philomela Linnaeus *
*
*
Hypolimnas bolina
Y. huebneri Kirby *
*
*
*
*
Linnaeus
*
*
*
*
Zipoetis saitis Hewitson *
H. misippus Linnaeus
*
*
*
*
ACRAEIDAE
Junonia orithya swinhoei
Acraea terpsicore Linnaeus*
*
*
*S
Butler
*
*
*
*
DAN AIDA E
J. lemonias Linnaeus
*
*
*
*
*
Danaus genutia genutia
J. hierta Fabricius
*
*
*
*
*
Cramer *
*
*
*
*
J. almana Linnaeus
*
*
*
*
D. chrysippus chrysippus
J. atlites Linnaeus
*
*
*
*
Linnaeus *
*
*
*
*
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
195
HABIT A TASSOCIA TIONS OF BUTTERFLIES
Table 1 (contd.)
DISTRIBUTION OF BUTTERFLIES IN VARIOUS
HABITATS IN THE STUDY AREA
Table 1 (contd.)
DISTRIBUTION OF BUTTERFLIES IN VARIOUS
HABITATS IN THE STUDY AREA
Family /Species
Habitats
Family /Species
Habitats
EVG
SEV
MDF
DDF
PLN
EVG
SEV
MDF DDF PLN
Euploea core core Cramer *
*
*
*
*
Virachola perse ghela
Idea malabarica
(Fruhstorfer)
S
malabarica Moore *
*
Discolampa ethion
Parantica aglea aglea
vavasanus Fruhstorfer
*
*
* *
Cramer *
*
*
*
*
Euchrysops cnejus cnejus
P. nilgiriensis Moore *
*
*
Fabricius
*
*
* *
Tirumala limniace
Jamides alecto (Felder)
*
*
* *
leopardus Butler
*
*
*
*
J. celeno (Cramer)
*
*
* * *
PIERIDAE
J. bochus bochus Cramer
*
*
Appias libythea libythea
Loxura alymnus Cramer
*
*
*
Fabricius *
*
*
*
*
Neopithecops zalmora
A. lyncida latifascia Moore *
*
*
*
*
dharma Moore
*
*
A. albinadarada Felder *
*
Spindasis vulcanus
A . indr a shiva S winhoe *
*
*
vulcanus Fabricius
*
*
*
Anapheis aurota
S. schistacea schistacea
Fabricius *
*
*
*
Moore
*
*
*
Catopsilia pomona
Talicada nyseus nyseus
pomona Fabricius *
*
*
*
*
Guerin
*
*
C. pyranthe Linnaeus *
*
★
*
*
Udara akasa Horsfield
*
*
*
Cepora nerissa phryne
Zesius chrysomallus
Fabricius *
*
*
*
Hubner
*S
C. nadina remba Moore *
*
Zizina otis decreta Butler
*
*
* *
Colotis fausta (Olivier)
*
HESPERIIDAE
C. etrida Boisduval
*
Badamia exclamationis
C. danae Fabricius
*
Fabricius
*
*
*
Delias eucharis Drury *
*
*
*
*
Celaenorrhinus leucocera
Eurema laeta laeta
Kollar
*
*
Boisduval *
*
*
*
*
C. ambareesa Moore
*
*
* *
E. hecabe Linnaeus *
*
*
*
*
Hasora chromus chromus
E. blanda Boisduval *
*
*
*
*
Cramer
*
*
*
E. brigitta rubella Wallace *
*
*
*
Iambrix salsala luteipennis
Hebomoia glaucippe
Plotz
*
*
*
australis Butler *
*
*
*
*
Oriens concinna El.
*
Ixias pyrene sesia Linnaeus
*
Odontoptilum angulata
/. marianne Cramer
*
Felder
*
*
*
Lepiosia nina nina
Potanthus pava pava
Fabricius
*
*
Fruhstorfer
*
*
*
Pareronia Valeria hippia
Pelopidas subochracea
Fabricius *S
subochracea Moore
*
*
LYCAEMDAE
Spialia galba Fabricius
*
*
*
Caleta caleta Hewitson *
*
*
*
Tagiades litigiosa
Castalius rosimon
Moschler
*
*
* *
(Fabricius) *
*
*
*
*
Taractrocera ceramas
Celastrina lavendularis *
*
*
ceramas Hewitson
*
*
*
Moore
Telicota ancilla bambusae
C her it r a freja (Fabricius) *
*
*
Moore
*
*
* *
Chilades pandava
Abbreviations: EVG - Evergreen; SEV - Semi-evergreen;
pandava Hors field *
*
*
MDF - Moist Deciduous Forest; DDF -
Dry Deciduous Forest;
Curelis dentata dentata
PLN - Teak Plantation; S - :
Single observation during the entire
Moore *
*
*
study period
196
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
HABITA TASSOCIA TIONS OF BUTTERFLIES
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
197
1. Thunacadavu; 2. Sungam; 3. Thellickal; 4. Karianshola; 5. Thekkadi; 6. Elathodu; 7. Kuriarkutty; 8. Orukombankutty; 9. Poopara;
10. Karimalagopuram; 1 1. Parambikulam; 12. Muduva colony; 13. Vengolimala; 14. Pillakkal; 15. Seechalipallam; 16. Keerappadi; 17. Ponnamudi; 18. Kottayali;
19. Muthuvarachal; 20 Puliyalapara; 21 . Anappady; 22 Vengoli; 23. Veyakkadamudi; 24 Padippara; 25 Thoothampara.
HABITA TASSOCIA TIONS OF BUTTERFLIES
bernardus imna, Cirrochroa thais thais,
Tanaecia lepidea miyana, Polyura athamas
athamas , Phalanta phalanta , Hypolimnas spp.,
Neptis spp. and Junonia spp. are commonly
found here. Besides a few species of Papilio
paris tamilana , Vindula erota saloma and
Parthenos sylvia virens are also occasionally
sighted. The understorey species are more or less
same as in the evergreen forest habitat.
Moist deciduous forests: In the Sanctuary,
such forests cover 60 sq. km area. They are mostly
encountered along the ridges and lower slopes.
Several species of butterflies which are
generally common in the study area like Neptis
hylas varmona , Ariadne ariadne indica, Papilio
demoleus , Euploea core core , Tirumala limniace
leopardus , Junonia spp., Pachliopta spp. etc are
encountered in this habitat. Species like
Charaxes bernardus imna , Polyura athamas
athamas , Appias lyncida latifascia, and
Tanaecia lepidea miyana are occasionally
sighted here during June-July.
The forest understorey species showed
remarkable seasonal variation in this habitat.
Species like Eurema hecabe, E. blanda, Ypthima
baldus madrasa and Y. huebneri are seen
throughout the year. During June-July species
like Melanitis leda leda, M. phedima varaha,
Mycalesis igilia , /. patnia junonia and
M. perseus can also be sighted.
Dry deciduous forests: This type of forest
is seen in the Thekkady-Keerappady region, and
constitutes only 15 sq. km. The climate is
extremely dry with very low rainfall. The forests
are mainly thorny bush and scrub jungles.
These forests are seen only in a small patch,
and the butterfly fauna here is unique and varied.
Canopy species include Danaus chrysippus,
Hebomoia glaucippe australis and Cepora
nerissa phryne , along with Catopsilia spp.,
Junonia spp. and Appias spp. A single specimen
of Troides minos was also sighted in January.
This habitat harbours the most distinctive
understorey fauna in the Sanctuary. Species like
Ixias marianne, /. pyrene sesia, Colotis fausta ,
C. danae , C. etrida and Ypthima ceylonica
ceylonica are confined to this habitat. Species
like Leptosia nina nina , Ypthima baldus madrasa ,
Y. huebneri and Eurema spp. are also common.
Teak plantations: The teak plantations
here are in a state of reversion. Deciduous species
like Cassia fistula , Cordia dichotoma , Bute a
monosperma , Grewia tiliaefolia and Randia spp.
appear, intermingled with teak trees.
The butterfly community is a mosaic, with
species from moist deciduous and semi-evergreen
forests dominating. Species like Neptis jumb ah
jumbah , Vindula erota saloma , Papilio helenus ,
Tanaecia lepidea were recorded during the wet
months. Understorey fauna also shows similar
affinity to moist deciduous forests, with species
like Melanitis leda leda , Mycalesis mineus
polydecta, Ypthima spp. and Eurema spp.
Vayals or marshes: Butterflies which
prefer bright sunlight and open areas inhabit this
habitat. Danaid butterflies like Timmala limniace
leopardus , T. septentrionis dravidarum ,
Parantica aglea aglea, P. nilgiriensis and
Nymphalids like Junonia atlites , J. iphita
pluvialis, Euploea core core and Pierids like
Eurema spp. and Appias spp. are common.
Aggregations of mud puddling butterflies of the
species Appias indra shiva, A. libythea libythea,
Cepora nadina remba , Graphium sarpedon
teredon and J amides spp. are characteristic of
vayals. Small scale population build-up of
Tirumala limniace leopardus , T. septentrionis
dravidarum , Parantica aglea aglea, Danaus
chrysippus, D. genutia genutia and Euploea core
core were also seen in summer.
Banks of rivers and streams: Two major
river valleys, the Parambikulam and the Sholayar
are present in the Sanctuary. These two rivers
converge at Orukombankutty and flow into the
main Chalakkudy river. Species like Kaniska
canace viridis, Graphium sarpedon teredon,
Caleta caleta, Castalius rosimon, Discolampa
ethion vavasanus and Jamides spp. were recorded
198
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
HABITA TASSOCIA TIONS OF BUTTERFLIES
from the banks of these rivers and streams.
Protected and endemic butterflies:
Eighteen species recorded in this study come
under the protected category as per the Indian
Wildlife Act, 1972 (Table 2). Among them, the
Lycaenid CastaJius rosimon rosimon , the
Nymphalid Hypolimnas misippus , and the
Papilionid Pachliopta hector come under
Schedule I of the Act. The rare species include
the Satyrid Mycalesis igilia , the Hesperid
Odontoptilum angulata, the Danaids Parantica
nilgiriensis and Idea malabarica malabarica.
The Papilionid Papilio dravidarum and the
Lycaenid Zesius chrysomallus are considered
very rare. Out of the 23 species, which are
endemic to different biogeographic regions, 10
species are narrow endemics of Western Ghats
and another 10 are endemic to south India and
Sri Lanka, while the remaining 3 are endemic to
Sri Lanka and the Indian subcontinent.
Discussion
The butterflies recorded from
Parambikulam represent all the major families,
with Nymphalidae, Pieridae, Lycaenidae, and
Satyridae and Papilionidae dominating, followed
by Hesperidae and Danaidae. Acraeidae and
Amathusiidae are represented by only one species
each. Altogether, 124 butterflies were collected
and their habitat preferences recorded. Of them,
10 species are narrow endemic to Western Ghats.
Eighteen species have protected status as per the
Indian Wildlife Act, 1972 (Anon., 1990).
Some interesting and rare species such as
Discophora lepida, Pathysa antiphates , Papilio
buddha , Pantoporia ranga, Pareronia Valeria
hippia and Charaxes bernardus imna were
recorded. The only representative of Acraeidae
in south India, Acraea terpiscore has also been
recorded from the Parambikulam forests.
With regard to the distribution, evergreen
forest was found to be the most species-rich
habitat (117 species). This was followed by semi-
evergreen forests (108 species) and moist
deciduous forests (95 species). Teak plantations
were found to be inhabited by 57 species, which
means that there is substantial reduction in
butterfly diversity in this altered environment.
Dry deciduous forest habitat, which covers only
5.26% of the sanctuary area, harbours the least
number (41 species).
Parambikulam contains a number of
different habitats and climate zones, as diverse
in form and structure as wet evergreen forests
and dry deciduous forests, which may account
for the high species richness for butterflies. The
number of species collected from Parambikulam
( 1 24) is higher than that from Silent Valley ( 1 00)
(Mathew and Rahmathuila, 1993) and Periyar
Tiger Reserve (119) (Palot et al ., 1997).
Endemism in the fauna is also higher in
Parambikulam (23 species) than in Silent Valley
(13 species) and Periyar (19 species).
Among the butterflies recorded, 60 species
are considered common in the sanctuary. These
include 33 species observed in all the habitats
studied, and 27 species present only in the four
habitats. 49 species are considered uncommon
as their distribution is limited to 2 or 3 habitats.
The distribution of 15 species restricted to a
particular habitat are considered rare, which
include 9 species observed exclusively in
evergreen forests viz., Papilio buddha , Pathysa
antiphates , Pachliopta pandiyana , Pantoporia
ranga , Pareronia Valeria , Zipoetis saitis , Oriens
concinna, Virachola perse and Zesius
chysomallus . Six species viz., Ixias marianne ,
/. pyrene \ Colot is etrida, C. fausta , Ypthima
ceylonica are observed exclusively in the dry
deciduous habitat. Most of the butterflies
observed in the vayals and the banks of rivers
and streams are common species.
Significant variation was observed in
habitat preference between the butterflies in the
forest understorey and forest canopy. Forest
understorey species like Lethe rohria, Ypthima
ceylonica , Ixias pyrene , Colotis fausta showed
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
199
HABITA TASSOCIA TIONS OF BUTTERFLIES
Table 2
LIST OF RARE AND ENDEMIC BUTTERFLIES RECORDED FROM PARAMBIKULAM
FAMILY/SPECIES
STATUS
ENDEMISM
Papilionidae
Troides minos Cramer
Western Ghats
Pachliopta hector Linnaeus
Protected, Schedule I
South India & Sri Lanka
P. pandiyana Moore
Western Ghats
Papilio buddha Westwood
Protected, Schedule II
Western Ghats
P. dravidarum Wood-Mason
Very rare
Western Ghats
P. polymnestor parinda Moore
Peninsular India & Sri Lanka
Pteridae
Appias libythea libythea Fabricius
Protected, Schedule IV
Appias lyncida latifascia Moore
Protected, Schedule 11
A. albinadarada Felder
Protected, Schedule 11
Western Ghats
A. indra shiva Swinhoe
Protected, Schedule II
Cepora nadina rernba Moore
Wettest rainforests
Delias eucharis Drury
South India & Sri Lanka
Nymphalidae
Cirrochroa thais thais Fabricius
Only in wettest rainforests
South India & Sri Lanka
Cethosia nietneri mahratta Felder
Only in wettest rainforests
South India & Sri Lanka
Euthalia lubentina (Cramer)
Protected, Schedule IV
Hypolimnas misippus Linnaeus
Protected, Schedule I
Neptis jumbah jumbah Moore
Protected, Schedule I
Part he nos sylvia Moore
Protected, Schedule II
Tanaecia lepidea miyana Fruhstorfer
Protected, Schedule II
Pantoporia ranga Moore
Protected, Schedule II
Amathusiidae
Discophora lepida lepida Moore
Protected, Schedule 11
South India & Sri Lanka
Satyridae
Mycalesis anaxias anoxias Hewitson
Protected, Schedule II
M. igilia Fruhstorfer
Rare
Western Ghats
M. patnia junonia Butler
South India & Sri Lanka
Ypthima ceylonica ceylonica Hewitson
South India & Sri Lanka
Zipoetis saitis Hewitson
Protected, Schedule II
Western Ghats
Acraeidae
Acraea terpsicore Linnaeus
Sri Lanka & Indian Subcontinent
Danaidae
Parantica nilgiriensis Moore
Rare
Western Ghats
Idea malabarica malabarica Moore
Rare
Western Ghats
Lycacnidae
Caslalius rosimon rosimcn Fabricius
Protected, Schedule I
Euchrysops cnejus cnejus Fabricius
Protected, Schedule II
Sri Lanka & Indian Subcontinent
Spindasis vulcanus vulcanus Fabricius
S. schistacea schistacea Moore
South India & Sri Lanka
Udara akasa Horsfield
Sri Lanka & Sri Lanka
Zesius chrysomallus Hubner
Very rare
Sri Lanka & Indian Subcontinent
Hesperidae
Odontoptilum angulata (Feld.)
Rare
Western Ghats
Oriens concinna Elwes
Protected, Schedule IV
200
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2), AUG. 2000
HA BIT A TASSOCJA TIONS OF BUTTERFLIES
remarkable habitat specificity compared to forest
conopy species like Cirrochroa thais, Papilio
demoleus, Delias eucharis, and Hebomoia
glaucippe . This may be the reason why canopy
butterflies (barring a few species) are common
in the Sanctuary.
The habitat association of butterflies
discussed here is based on the observed
distribution in various habitats. One of the
reasons for a species’ association with a
particular habitat could be the presence of its host
plants. For example, the papilionid Pachliopta
pandiyana recorded from the evergreen forest
habitat can survive only on the habitat-specific
evergreen shrub, Thottea siliquosa (Lam.) Hou
(Aristolochiaceae). Similar ecological data for
other butterfly species could help to interpret their
habitat associations precisely.
The presence of a rich butterfly fauna in
the Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary is
indicative of the diverse habitats in the Sanctuary,
Refer
Anonymous (1 990): The Indian Wildlife Act (Protection),
1972. Nataraj Publishers, Dehra Dun, pp. 86.
D’abrera, B. ( 1 982, 1 985, 1 986): Butterflies of the Oriental
Region. Parts I, II & III, Hill House, Australia.
Evans, W.H. ( 1 932): The Identification of Indian Butterflies.
Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. 464 pp.
Fergusson, H.S. (1891): A list of the butterflies of
Travancore. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 6: 438-448.
Fraser, F.C. ( 1 930): A note on some Malabar Lepidoptera.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 34: 260-261.
Gilbert, L.E. & M.C. Singer (1975): Butterfly ecology.
Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 6: 365-397.
Holloway, J.D., A.H. Kirk-Spriggs & C.Y. Khen ( 1 992):
The response of some rain forest insect groups to
logging and conversion to plantation. Phil. Trans. R.
Soc. Bond. B. 335: 425-436.
Palot, M. Jafer, G. Mathew & V.J. Zacharias (1997):
Butterflies of Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala (India). Adv.
For. Res. India. 27: 188-204.
Larsen, T.B. (1987): The Butterflies of the Nilgiri
mountains of Southern India (Lepidoptera:
Rhopalocera). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(1): 26-54;
84(2): 291-316; 84(3): 560-584.
Larsen, T.B. (1988): The butterflies of the Nilgiri
which help in the proliferation and abundance
of butterfly species. Holloway et al. (1992)
observed that conversion of forests to plantation
and other man-induced disturbances lead to
reduction in the diversity of lepidopterans, both
in species richness and in taxonomic and
biogeographic quality. Parambikulam, with a
variety of vegetation types, climatic zones, and
remarkable endemism, must be given top priority
for the conservation of its rich biodiversity.
AcKNOW LEDG EM ENTS
This work was carried out as part of a
project funded by the Kerala Forest Department
(Wildlife Wing). We thank the Wildlife Warden
and his staff, Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary,
for cooperation; the Director, Kerala Forest
Research Institute, Peechi for encouragement and
facilities and experts from the ZSI and IARI for
identification.
EN C E S
mountains of southern India (Lepidoptera :
Rhopalocera). / Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85(1): 26-43.
Mathew, G. & V.K. Rahmathulla (1993): Studies on the
butterflies of the Silent Valley National Park, Kerala,
India. Entomon 18(3 & 4): 185-192.
New, T.R. (1990-92): Conservation of butterflies in
Australia. J. Res. Lepid. 29(4): 237-253.
Sebastine, K.M. & K. Ramamurthy (1966): Studies on
the flora of Parambikulam and Aliyar submergible
areas. Bull. Bot. Surv. India, 8: 169-182.
Talbot, G. (1939): The Fauna of British India including
Ceylon and Burma - Butterflies Vol. 1, Repr. 1975,
Today and Tomorrow Printers and Publishers, New
Delhi, pp. 600.
Talbot, G. (1947): The Fauna of British India including
Ceylon and Burma — Butterflies Volume II, Reprint
Edition (1975), Today and Tomorrow Printers and
Publishers, New Delhi, pp. 506.
Wells, S.M., M.R. Pyle & Mark M. Collins (1983): The
IUCN Invertebrate Red Data Book. IUCN. Switzerland,
623 pp.
Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian
Region. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay,
523 pp.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
201
GROWTH PATTERN OF MANGROVES IN THE GULF OF KUTCH1
H. S. Singh2
( With three text-figures)
Key words: Mangroves, Gulf of Kutch, Avicennia marina, growth pattern
In the past, mangroves were tall, over 14 m in height in Gujarat State. Eleven core species were
recorded in the literature, but during an extensive survey of the tidal forests of Gujarat from 1994
to 1999, only eight species, with the dominant Avicennia marina , have been encountered. Most
mangroves are now shrubby, with an average height of 2 m, while A. marina attains moderate
height along creeks and towards the sea. Heights of dominant trees in the Gulf of Kutch were
normally 5 to 7 m, rarely exceeding 9 m in western mangroves. Stump and stem analysis of
A. marina on Pirotan Islands (Marine National Park, Jamnagar) and in western mangroves (Kutch),
revealed that four growth rings were formed annually, as against two rings in trees, especially
conifers.
Extreme summer and winter are not suitable for photosynthesis of A. marina in the Gulf of
Kutch, and are non-growth periods. Studies in other parts of the world indicate that photosynthesis
of A. marina ceases below 13 °C and above 35 °C, with peak production between 20 °C and
27 °C. Two nongrowth periods alternating with the growth periods explain the formation of more
than two rings a year.
Introduction
The Gulf of Kutch (22°15' N to 23°40’ N
and 68°20' E to 70°40' E), Gujarat State, is located
in western India. Jamnagar and Rajkot districts
of Saurashtra to the south and Kutch district in
the north constitute the boundary of the Gulf.
The Gulf has an area of 7,350 sq. km, the
east- west length is about 170 km and width 175
km at the mouth. The southern part of the Gulf
has a network of 42 islands (bets) with coral
reefs and rich marine life.
The average annual rainfall in the region
ranges from 400 to 600 mm, with about 14 rainy
days, mostly from the SW monsoon, which
breaks over Saurashtra and Kutch in the end of
June and continues to the end of September. Air
temperature ranges from 7.8 °C in January to
44.8 °C in May. The water temperature generally
varies from 15 °C to 35 °C. However, local
increase above 35 °C is recorded in summer in
'Accepted April, 2000
2Gujarat Ecological Education and Research Foundation,
Indroda Park, Sector 9,
Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India.
isolated water pools in the intertidal area.
Evapo-transpiration in Kutch is very high and
annual ratio of precipitation to evapo-
transpiration ranges between 0.3 and 0.5. The
humidity in Kutch varies from 50% during
November-December to 80% during SW
monsoon (Singh et al. 1999). There is no
perennial river in Saurashtra and Kutch, and
discharge of rainwater through seasonal monsoon
rivers is reduced due to the construction of dams.
Tide amplitude in the Gulf is recorded
varying from 3.0 m to 6.0 m. Water salinity in the
mangrove creek normally varies from 37 ppt to 44
ppt and still higher salinity is recorded in summer
in pools of water in the hyper-saline zone. Low
rainfall, extreme temperature, salinity and tide
amplitude are limiting factors for the development
of mangroves (Singh 1999). The pH value of creek
water ranges between 7.7 and 9.1 in western
mangroves (Singh et al 1999). Average pH value
of the mangrove soil at Pirotan was 8.4 (8.1 to
8.9). Average organic carbon was 0.43%, whereas
available phosphorus and potash content was 33.3
kg/ha and 4.0 kg/ha respectively (Singh 1999).
202
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
GROWTH PA TTERN OF MANGROVES
Mangroves in Gujarat: Gujarat State has
notified a total area of 1,324 sq. km in Kutch,
Jamnagar and Rajkot districts in the Gulf of
Kutch as mangrove forests, locally called Cher.
Using remote sensing technology, the Forest
Survey of India (FSI), Dehra Dun in 1997 and
1999, estimated a mangrove cover of about 991
and 1,03 1 sq. km respectively in Gujarat, second
only to the Sunderbans in West Bengal. The
Gujarat Ecological Education and Research
(GEER) Foundation, Gandhinagar made an
independent study in 1999 using IRS LISS-111
data of 1998, and interpreted forest cover on a scale
of 1 : 50,000. This provided an accurate estimate of
938.4 sq. km (874.4 sq. km in the Gulf of Kutch)
mangrove cover. Western mangroves in Abdasa
and Lakhpat taluka, known as Indian deltaic
mangroves, are the largest tidal forests in Gujarat.
Part of the mangroves in and around Kori creek
were destroyed by the cyclone that hit Gujarat and
the coast of Pakistan in May 1999.
Floral diversity and height of mangroves
decreases as one moves away from the equatorial
region, and hence diversity of mangroves in
Gujarat is poorer than in other mangroves of the
country. Thirteen core mangrove species have
been recorded on the western coast of India.
Eleven species, belonging to seven genera and
five families were recorded in Gujarat (Chavan
1985, Kothari 1991), nine of them in the Gulf of
Kutch. Avicennia officinalis , A. marina , A. alba ,
Aegiceras corniculatum , Ceriops tagal ,
Rhizophora mucronata , Bruguiera gymnorrhiza ,
Sonneratia apetala, Acanthus ilicifolius ,
R. apiculata and B. cylindrica were species
recorded in Gujarat. Singh (1999) could record
only eight species in Gujarat as R. apiculata ,
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza and B. cylindrica were
not encountered in the two years study. At
present, only seven core species of mangroves
grow in the Gulf of Kutch.
Avicennia marina dominates the forests of
Gujarat, constituting the majority of mangrove
trees in the State, which are shrubby with low
height, but A. marina attains good height along
the creek and seaward.
Methods
Growth pattern of mangroves in the Gulf
of Kutch was not studied in the past, except that
the height of mangroves was recorded in some
areas. To understand tree development pattern
at good sites in the Gulf, the literature including
records of the Forest Department were studied,
and height of trees was measured at a few sites
while the author was serving as Conservator of
Forests, Marine National Park. Tree diameter and
height relationship, and heights and
corresponding diameters of Avicennia marina
were recorded on Pirotan, its neighbouring bets
and in western mangroves in Kutch. Studies on
A. marina by the Gujarat Institute of Desert
Ecology (GUIDE), Bhuj on western mangroves
were also consulted (Singh et al. 1999).
Girth at breast height (gbh) and height of
Avicennia trees were measured in landlocked
mangroves at Shravan Kavadiya to understand
growth pattern in the past. While carrying out
this exercise, distinct growth rings were observed
on a tree stump. Thus providing an idea to
conduct stump and stem analysis of trees to
understand growth pattern. Stem and stump
analysis was hence, done at Pirotan Island and
in western mangroves near Siyadinar. 15 trees
at Pirotan and 5 trees in western mangroves were
cut for this purpose. Thousands of tall trees had
died in the cyclones of 1 998 and 1 999, only dead
trees were cut, at 20 to 50 cm above ground level,
depending on the tapering of the stump. Four
radii were drawn on the stump and each radius
was measured at intervals of 10 growth rings,
and the average diameter was estimated.
Results and Discussion
Mangrove trees with a height of 14 m have
been recorded in the past (Chavan 1985).
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2), AUG. 2000
203
GROWTH PA TTERN OF MANGROVES
Landlocked mangroves at Shravan Kavadiya in
fringes of Banni grassland are tall. This land was
part of the Gulf in the historic past. A small patch
of old mangroves in about 0.7 ha survived till
the cyclone that occurred in June, 1998. About
36 trees with tops broken still survive on the site.
The average height of dead trees measured about
18.0 m in 1999. This reveals that mangroves in
the Gulf were extensive and taller than those in
existing forests. Various studies indicated that
geomorphological and climatic changes had
made an impact on mangroves in the region.
Presently in Gujarat, mangroves are shrubs
with an average height of 2 m, but they attain
good height along the creek and seawards.
Rhizophora mucronata occurs only on the islands
in the Marine National Park; its average height
is 3.5 m. Ceriops tagal and Aegiceras
corniculatum are also shrubs about 1.2 to 1.4 m
high; they occur only on the bets in the Park.
The height of the tallest Ceriops tagal at Pirotan
was 2.9 m. Acanthus ilicifolius is a shrub growing
in the estuarine areas of south Gujarat.
Sonneratia apetala occurs in the estuary of the
Tapti, where trees exceed 6 m height in restricted
areas.
Avicennia alba is a small tree, while
A. marina is the tallest tree in the mangroves in
Gujarat. Old trees of A. marina were observed in
1994, and most of them had broken tops. Their
height was between 5.0 and 7.2 m on Chhad and
Zindra bet. Good cher forest, regenerated after
destruction of old mangroves on Pirotan and
Bhensbid, had an average top height of 4.4 m
(3.6 to 5.4 m) in 1994, which increased to 5.3 m
(4.0 to 6.0 m) in 1999. Measurements of
dominant trees at Pirotan revealed that a
plantation of 1983 attained top height of 3.2 m
in 15 years.
Singh (1999), conducted surveys of
western mangroves at five sites (Medi creek, Laki
creek, Jakhau, Mundra, Kori creek), and reported
that density of trees (height of 75 cm) ranged
from the lowest 792 trees/ha at Laki to a
maximum of 1900 trees/ha at Kori creek. Tree
height in the area ranged from 0.75 to 10.0 m.
Trees at Medi post were taller, with a mean height
of 3.7 m and shorter at Jakhau with a mean height
of 2.2 m. In all the five stations, heights in the
range of 1.6 to 3.0 m were greater in number
followed by 1.0 to 1.5 and 3.0 to 4.5 m classes.
The tallest trees with heights of about
10.0 m were recorded at Carissod creek. Trees
up to 9.0 m were measured in Kav creek in the
forest of Medi post. Many trees in the height class
of 6.0 to 7.5 m were measured in Kori, Medi
and Laki creeks. At Mundra and Jakhau, tree
height did not exceed 6.0 m. The maximum
number of trees above 6.0 m was recorded in the
forest of Medi post. Mean gbh in the western
mangroves was estimated from 31 cm at Mundra
to 37 cm at Medi, Maximum and minimum gbh
recorded was 15 cm at Navinal creek and 2.25
m at Laki creek. Trees with gbh of 21 to 40 cm
predominated at all sites, followed by the 4 1 to
60 cm class (Singh et al., 1999). Average height
and gbh of 17 tall (dominant) trees in Jakhau
forest were estimated at 5.3 m (4.0 and 6.9 m)
and 43.6 cm (27 and 66 cm), respectively (Singh
1999).
Stump and Stem Analysis: As mentioned
earlier, growth rings on stumps of Avicennia
marina are as distinct as those of any coniferous
tree growing in the temperate region. The author,
along with the Conservator of Forests, Marine
National Park, his staff, and scientists of GEER
Foundation, initiated an exercise on one of the
bets (Pirotan) in the Park. On small stumps,
number of rings (light or dark) was exceptionally
high, which made the investigators sceptical.
Trees were cut in an area which was regenerated
after 1982 to confirm findings. There were no
mangroves on the site before the plantation in
1983. Study revealed that the number of growth
rings (dark or light) was almost double the age
of plantation. This was confirmed from other
areas also. This finding appeared to have no
explanation. Local watchmen and fishermen
204
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2), AUG. 2000
GROWTH PA TTERN OF MANGROVES
informed us that the cher forests remain green
and luxuriant during monsoon and in late winter
or early summer. They become dull and pale
green at the peak of winter and summer. This
probably means that there are two good growth
periods in a year, with two non-growth periods.
Mangroves in similar climatic conditions in
Australia and America respond to temperature
stress by decreasing their structural complexity
i.e. decreased tree height, leaf area index, leaf
size and increased tree density (Lugo and Zucca,
1977). Mangroves growing in the environment
prevailing in the Gulf are less tolerant to low
temperature. McMillan (1971) reported that high
water temperature could also be a limiting factor.
Hutching and Saenger (1987) concluded in their
study that for Australian mangrove species,
growth ceases below 1 5 °C with peak production
occurring between 20 °C and 27 °C. Avicennia
marina , classed by them as a cool temperate
species, commences leaf production above 12 °C
with peak production at around 20 °C. MacNae
(1963), found that A. marina occurs in southern
Africa in the areas where mean air temperature
does not fall below 13 °C. Various studies have
shown that for most mangrove species,
photosynthesis declines sharply above 35 °C
(Pernetta, 1993). In the Gulf of Kutch,
temperature difference is very high. In summer,
air temperature increases above 40 °C and soil
temperature above 35 °C. Thus, growth
(photosynthesis) of Avicennia species in the Gulf
remains very low during summer (May-June) due
to high temperature, increased salinity and high
water current and also during extreme winter,
(December-January) due to low temperature. On
the basis of the above, it appears that there are
four periods in a year differentiating distinct
growth seasons.
The above analysis explains that there are
two non-growth periods in mangroves in the
Gulf, i.e. extreme summer and winter. This
finding is not conclusive, but forms the basis for
further study on the growth pattern of A. marina
in the subtropical region. It is assumed here that
four growth rings are formed annually. The
growth pattern of A. marina on the basis of stump
and stem analysis is discussed below.
Data on 1 5 trees at Pirotan and 5 trees in
western mangroves have been analysed. Trees
were cut at a height of 20 to 50 cm above ground
level, depending on stem form near the ground.
The growth pattern of Avicennia trees at good
sites along the creek or seawards is given in
Tables 1, 2 and 3, and Figs 1, 2 and 3. These
show that Avicennia marina attains 4.9 m height
and about 31 cm girth at stump in 20 years at
Pirotan. The growth pattern has been
extrapolated up to 22 years tree age, but could
not be done beyond this due to non-availability
of old trees in the area. This analysis is site and
situation specific and may differ from other areas.
Mangroves in Jakhau (Siyadinar) are some
of the good tidal forests in Kutch. Large numbers
of big trees died in the cyclone in May 1999.
Five dead trees were cut to carry out stump
analysis. Two dark and two light rings were
considered as one year’s growth. Trees were cut
at 50 cm from the ground and rings were counted
along four radii on each stump. Table 2 gives
the results of graphic analysis of average age and
corresponding diameter. Stump analysis revealed
that A. marina has an average diameter of 1 1.0
cm at stump (50 cm above ground) in 25 years
and 22.5 cm in 50 years near the creek.
Conclusion
The Gulf of Kutch is not a true tropical
region, and climatic conditions are not ideal for
mangroves as in the Sundarbans and the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Most of the
mangroves in the Gulf of Kutch and other parts
of Gujarat are shrubby, but A. marina attains
moderate height at good sites near the creek and
seawards. The top canopy of mangrove trees is
usually damaged as a result of high winds and
cyclones. Although mangroves in the Gulf were
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
205
GROWTH PA TTERN OF MANGROVES
Table 1
GROWTH PATTERN OF
AVICENNIA
Age in years
Girth at
stump (cm)
2
NA
4
5.0
6
6.5
8
9.5
10
15.5
12
21.0
14
24.0
16
26.5
18
29.5
20
31.0
22
32.0
Table 2
GROWTH PATTERN OF
AVICENNIA
Age in years
Height (cm)
2
60
4
90
6
120
8
180
10
270
12
350
14
390
16
430
18
470
20
490
22
510
Table 3
GROWTH PATTERN OF
AVICENNIA
Age in years
Ave. diameter
at stump (cm)
5
2.0
10
4.1
15
6.5
20
8.7
25
11.0
30
13.0
35
16.0
40
18.7
45
20.5
50
22.5
55
24.0
60
25.5
65
26.5
Age-height relationship at Pirotan
Girth-height relationship at Pirotan
Fig. 2: Growth pattern of Avicennia
Age-diameter relationship in western manaroves (Kutch)
Age (Years)
Fig. 3: Growth pattern of Avicennia
206
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
GROWTH PA 'TTERN OF MANGROVES
tall in the past, their height now rarely exceeds
9.0 m. On an average, the diameter of A. marina
increases 0.45 cm (0.4 cm to 0.5 cm) per year at
good sites in the Gulf of Kutch. This study
revealed that distinct rings are formed as a result
of change in temperature and other climatic
conditions. Photosynthesis is at a maximum
during monsoon and moderate summer, and is
Refer
Chavan, S.A. (1985): Status of mangroves ecosystem in
the Gulf of Kutch, Forest Department.
Hutching P. & P. Saenger (1 987): Ecology of mangroves.
University of Queensland Press St. Lucia, Australia,
pp. 388.
Kothari, M.J. & K.M. Rao (1991): Environmental impact
on mangroves in Panchavaram. Indian Forester
119(9): 773.
Lugo, A.E. & C.P. Zucca (1977): The impact of
temperature stress on mangrove structure and
growth. Trop.Ecol. 18: 149-161.
MacNae, W. (1963): Mangrove swamps in South Africa.
J. Ecol 5 J:\-25,
McMillan, C. (1971): Environmental factors affecting
seedling establishment of the black mangrove on
low or almost absent in extreme winter and
summer. Light and dark rings on stumps are
certainly related to growth variation. Unlike two-
ring formation in a year in most trees, especially
in temperate forests, there are four growth rings
in A. marina. Findings in this paper add to our
knowledge of mangrove development in the Gulf
of Kutch, laying the basis for further studies.
;nces
the Central Texas Coast. Ecology 52: 92.7-930.
Pernetta, John C. (1993): Mangrove Forests, climate
change and sea level rise. Hydrological influences
on community structure and survival, with examples
from the Indo-West Pacific. RJCN: 5 -7,
Singh, H.S. (1999): Mangroves in Gujarat - Current status
and strategy for development. Gujarat Ecological
Education and Research (GEER) Foundation,
Gandhinagar: Pp. 12-15 and 33-39.
Singh, Y.D., D. Vijay Kumar, S.F. Wesley Sunderaj, Justus
Joshua (1999): An ecological study of Kachchh
mangroves and its associated fauna with reference
to its management and conservation Gujarat
Institute of Desert Ecology (GUIDE), Bhuj (interim
report): 42-44.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2). AUG. 2000
207
THE STATUS OF MONGOOSES (FAMILY: HERPESTIDAE) IN
RUHUNA NATIONAL PARK, SRI LANKA'
Charles Santiapillai, Mangala De Silva* 2 and S.R.B. Dissanayake3
( With two text-figures)
Key words: Mongooses, Herpestidae, Herpestes, carnivores, Ruhuna National Park
Three species of mongoose occur in Ruhuna National Park, namely Herpestes edwardsii,
H. smithii and H. vitticollis. They are mostly solitary and diurnal carnivores that inhabit a variety
of habitats ranging from moist riverine forests to arid open grasslands. Ninety-six individuals
were recorded from 86 observations, during a transect study carried out between October 1991
and September 1993, in which a total of 34 days were spent in Block 1(141 sq. km) of the Park.
The most conspicuous and abundant species is the ruddy mongoose (H. smithii ), while the grey
mongoose (//. edwardsii ) is rare. The stripe-necked mongoose (H. vitticollis) is the largest species
associated with moist areas. The mongooses were found to be active throughout the day, but had
two peaks of activity: a major one in the morning (0800 hrs) and a minor one in the late evening
(1700 hrs). It is estimated that there could be at least a minimum of 370 ruddy mongoose, 100
stripe-necked mongoose and 30 grey mongoose in Block I, giving a crude density of 2.6, 0.7 and
0.2 per sq. km respectively. The sympatric occurrence of these three species of small carnivores
underlines the ecological richness and diversity of the Park.
Introduction
Of the 12 species of mongoose that belong
to the genus Herpestes worldwide, 4 occur in
Sri Lanka, namely the Indian grey mongoose
(. Herpestes edwardsii ), ruddy mongoose (H.
smithii ), Indian brown mongoose ( H.fuscus ) and
stripe-necked or badger mongoose (H. vitticollis).
All but the brown mongoose occur in the Ruhuna
National Park. Mongooses were at one time
included under the family Viverridae, but
subsequently assigned a separate family,
Herpestidae by Pocock (1939). The presence of
distinct herpestine and viverrine fossils in the
lower and mid-Miocene of Europe indicates that
these two groups might have diverged from one
another very early (Fetter 1969). Herpestids are
long-bodied, short-legged, terrestrial carnivores
characterized by highly developed anal scent
glands (Corbet and Hill 1992). They are never
blotched or spotted, and their coats are normally
grizzled and coarse in texture (Kingdon 1977).
‘Accepted March, 1999
department of Zoology, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.
3National Wildlife Training Centre, Giritale, Sri Lanka.
Another peculiarity is that in all Asian Herpestes ,
the males have one chromosome less than the
females: 2n = 35 in males, and 36 in females
(Fredga 1 972). Petter ( 1 969), on the basis of tooth
structure has shown the genus Herpestes to be
the least modified from the primitive miacid-type
carnivore from which the viverrids and herpestids
had evolved.
Mongooses occupy a variety of habitats
ranging from densely forested hills to open arid
areas. They usually live in holes in the ground
or hollow trees. They seldom climb trees
(Lekagul and McNeely 1977). They are known
to prey on snakes, even venomous ones such as
the cobra ( Naja naja). While mongooses are less
sensitive than most mammals to snake venom,
they are not completely immune to it (Prater
1971). Mongooses being predominantly diurnal,
are a common feature of the wildlife seen in the
national parks in Sri Lanka. Nevertheless, there
has been no attempt at serious research on
mongoose in Sri Lanka, and much of what is
known about their biology is still derived from
the observations of Eisenberg and Lockhart
(1972), and Phillips (1984). Hence, this
208
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
STATUS OF MONGOOSES (FAMILY: HERPESTIDAE) IN RUHUNA NATIONAL PARK
preliminary study was undertaken to obtain
information on the diversity, abundance and
activity of mongooses in the Ruhuna National
Park, given the need to know their current status,
if measures aimed at their conservation are to be
appropriate and effective.
Study Area
The observations on mongooses were
carried out in Block I ( 14 1 sq. km) of the Ruhuna
National Park (1,268 sq. km), situated on the
southeast coast of Sri Lanka (Fig. 1). Block I is
characterized by a large number of freshwater
tanks (man-made ponds and lakes), and brackish
lagoons. The main vegetation cover is woody,
mostly thorn-scrub, where the canopy is below
5 m in height, but forest trees occur in clumps
within the scrub, and as continuous cover inland
from the coast (Mueller-Dombois 1972). The
Park lies in a transition zone between the single
wet season experienced on the east coast and the
double peak of precipitation found along the
south coast of the island (IUCN 1990). The mean
annual temperature is 27 °C, and the main dry
season extends from May to September. The Park
receives less than 1,000 mm of rain per year.
For details regarding the flora and fauna of the
Park see Balasubramaniam et al. (1980), and
Santiapillai et al. (1981).
Material and Methods
Block I has a good network of motorable
roads, designed to take visitors past all the major
water-holes and grazing grounds. Between
October 1991 and September 1993, 34 days were
spent observing the mongooses in the Park.
Observations were carried out twice a day
between 0630 hrs and 1830 hrs, along the
network of roads, starting from the Palatupana
bungalow near the Park entrance to the Yala
bungalow in the north, along the coast, passing
most of the water-holes and grasslands and from
there back to Palatupana via Heenwewa through
largely scrub and forest. An area of
approximately 14 sq. km was intensively
searched for mongooses (Fig. 1). Most of the
animals were recorded as they crossed the road.
In open grasslands, and around water-holes, they
were recorded from larger areas, due to clear
visibility. At every sighting, the species was
identified and its number, locality, habitat, time
and activity recorded. All observations were
made with the naked eye or a pair of 8 x 40
binoculars, from a vehicle driven at about 7 km
per hour.
Results and Discussion
A total of 94 mongooses were recorded
during 86 observations. Of the three species of
mongoose in the Park, the grey mongoose
(Herpestes edwardsii ) was the least common with
only 3 individuals, recorded on two occasions
(Table 1). Of the other two species, 13
stripe-necked or badger mongoose ( H . vitticollis )
were observed on 12 occasions. The ruddy
mongoose ( H . smithii) was the most conspicuous
and numerically abundant species in the Park
with 78 recordings. It is surprising that the brown
mongoose ( H.fuscus ) which is so common along
the southwest coast of Sri Lanka up to Tangalle,
does not occur in the Park.
Herpestes smithii
The ruddy mongoose identified easily in
the field by its black-tipped, upwardly pointed
tail, is one of the most successful and adaptable
small carnivores in the Ruhuna National Park.
It occupies a wide variety of habitats such as
thorn-scrub, forest, coastal sand dunes, and the
‘villu’ grasslands. While in Wilpattu National
Park it is reportedly associated with permanent
water (Eisenberg and Lockhart 1 972), in Ruhuna
National Park, it inhabits a variety of habitats
and is not exclusively associated with water-
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
209
STA TUS OF MONGOOSES (FAMILY: HERPESTIDAE) IN RUHUNA NA TIONAL PARK
Memk ganga
Pannagamuwal — -q
Fig. 1 : Map of Block I of Ruhuna National Park (RNP), Sri Lanka showing
the location of the main water-holes.
210
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
ST A TUS OF MONGOOSES (FAMILY: HERPESTIDAE) INRUHUNA NA TIONAL PARK
Time (hours)
Fig. 2: Frequency of mongooses sighted per unit time period at different hours.
Table 1
SPECIES DIVERSITY AND ABUNDANCE OF
MONGOOSES IN RUHUNA NATIONAL PARK
Species H. edwardsii H. smithii H. vitticollis Total
October 1991
_
3
1
4
January 1992
-
18
2
20
March 1992
2
12
5
19
June 1992
-
4
-
4
January 1993
1
7
1
9
March 1993
-
14
4
18
April 1 993
-
2
-
2
September 1 993
-
18
-
18
Total
3
78
13
94
holes. Observations point to its essentially
solitary nature; 92% of the animals observed were
solitary, while pairs accounted for 8%. The pairs
observed were adult males and females. No young
were seen during the survey. The ruddy
mongoose appears to have a restricted home
range, within which it usually follows the same
route. The size of its range depends on habitat
and prey availability. In East Africa, Taylor
(1970) estimated the range of the slender
mongoose ( H . sanguineus) to be about 1 sq. km,
while in Hawaii, Tomich (1969) estimated the
range of the male and female small Indian
mongoose (H. auropunctatus) to be 2.0 and 0.5
sq. km respectively. The ruddy mongoose is an
effective and audacious predator that forages
alone, never in a group. For food and feeding
habits see Phillips (1984) and Prater (1971).
Herpestes vitticollis
The stripe-necked or badger mongoose,
readily identified by its characteristic black neck-
stripe, is the largest of all mongooses in Asia.
Essentially a forest animal, rarely encountered
far from water. All the observations of this species
were made in moist areas and in the vicinity of
the River Menik Ganga. It is the most solitary
among all species of mongoose. The only stable
social unit consists of the mother and her
offspring. Although the badger mongoose can
be encountered at any time of the day, it appears
to be most active in the early hours between
0700-0900 hrs. It is catholic in its diet. According
to Phillips (1984), it takes not only small
mammals and large prey like the black-naped
hare ( Lepus nigricollis ), mouse deer ( Tragulus
meminna ) and jungle fowl (G alius lafayetti ), but
also freshwater crabs, frogs, and fish that occur
in swamps or slow moving streams.
Ramachandran (1985) has recorded this
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
211
ST A TUS OF MONGOOSES (FAMILY: HERPESTIDAE) IN RUHUNA NA TIONAL PARK
mongoose scavenging a tiger kill. The mongoose
can be seen examining the river banks and other
damp areas for crabs and frogs (Table 2).
Table 2
FOOD PREFERENCES OF THE MONGOOSES IN
RUHUNA NATIONAL PARK
Food items
H. smithii
H. edwardsii
H. vitticollis
root
.
+
_
fruits
-
+
-
berries
-
+
-
carrion
+
+
-
termites
-
+
-
beetles
-
+
+
gaibs
-
+
+
snails
+
-
-
lizards
+ .
+
+
snakes
+
+
+
ground birds
+
+
+
bird's eggs
+
+
+
jungle fowl
-
-
+
rats
+
+
+
mice
+
+
+
shrew
+
+
+
mouse deer
-
-
+
hare
-
-
+
freshwater crabs
-
-
+
freshwater fish
-
-
+
frogs
-
-
+
Total
9
14
15
Source: Phillips ( 1 984), and information from Park authorities
(+ indicates an item eaten by the species)
Herpestes edwardsii
The grey mongoose is identified by its
silver-grey, pepper-and-salt speckled pelage and
the whitish tip (never black) of its long tail. It is
associated with open areas, cultivated fields,
grasslands and scrub, but not forest (Prater 1971).
It is mostly solitary and diurnal. Active,
particularly in the early mornings between 0800
and 0900 hrs, it tends to use tracks and is often
seen crossing the roads. The normal gait is a
quick trot. A cautious animal, it moves
constantly, examining the surroundings for food.
It is often seen in close proximity to termite
mounds, which are plentiful across much of the
Park. Termite adults are not an important food
item, but larval forms are preferred on account
of their high fat content. The grey mongoose
appears to rely on larger prey such as ground
birds and their eggs, lizards, small snakes,
insects, grubs and to a lesser extent, fruits, berries
and roots (Phillips 1984). In India, it has been
observed to chase the hare (Lepus nigricollis)
and run away with a dead cattle egret ( Bubulcus
ibis ) that had been left to lure Indian foxes out
of the den (Johnsingh 1978). It will kill and
devour any small snake. It was also observed
digging into water buffalo dung in search of
beetles and termites.
Activity pattern
Mongooses are solitary predators that hunt
by day and by night, and can be seen crossing the
road at any time of the day. Fig. 2 represents the
frequency of mongooses (all three species) sighted
per unit time period at different hours. 25% of the
sightings were between 0800 and 0900 hrs, while
over 50% of the sightings were made between 0600
and 0900 hrs. They were mostly encountered in
and around the water-holes. About 80% of the
observations in the Park were made in the ‘villu’
grasslands around the water-holes.
The mongooses are diurnal in Ruhuna
National Park. There are essentially two peaks
of activity: a large one in the morning at about
0800 hrs and another small one late in the
evening about 1700 hrs. These two peaks of
activity refer to foraging and hunting; mongooses
hunt actively during early morning and late
evening. The early morning activity coincides
with the basking time of most small reptiles, such
as lizards and snakes. The period of diurnal
activity is interrupted by one or more short resting
periods. In southwest Spain, Palomares and
Delibes ( 1 993) found that the Egyptian mongoose
(//. ichneumon ), which is also diurnal devotes
about 75% of its daytime to resting. At mid-day,
most of the mongooses retreat into the forest or
212
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
STA TUS OF MONGOOSES (FAMILY : HERPESTIDAE) IN RU HUN A NATIONAL PARK
near the river to escape the heat. The usual
sleeping and resting areas are the termitaries and
other natural crevices in the rocky areas of the
Park which afford protection from the largest
predator, the leopard (Panthera pardus ), and
from inclement weather. Given that underground
dens and thickets fulfill both requirements,
Palomares and Delibes (1993) recommend that
habitats having such dens and thickets should
be protected to guarantee the conservation of
mongooses.
Number and Density
On the basis of the restricted home ranges
of mongooses, and their association with water-
holes, we estimate that at least 37 ruddy
mongoose, 10 badger mongoose and 3 grey
mongoose reside within the area covered by the
transect, which amounts to roughly 14 sq. km,
bearing thorn-scrub vegetation that is typical of
the Park. This translates into a population of 370
ruddy mongoose, 100 badger mongoose, and 30
grey mongoose, in Block I (141 sq. km) of the
Ruhuna National Park, giving crude density
values of 2.6, 0.7 and 0.2 per sq. km for the three
species respectively. These density values must
be treated with extreme caution, as they were
based on the animals observed in the transect,
and not on any rigorous mark-release-recapture
study. In any case, they represent the minimum
crude densities of the three species in the Park.
In Puerto Rico, the density of the small Indian
mongoose ( H . auropunctatus ) in sugarcane
plantations (where it was introduced to kill
snakes) became as high as 250 per sq. km
(Piementel 1955). At such high density, the
mongoose became a pest. But in the wild,
mongooses do not occur in high densities.
Eisenberg and Lockhart (1972), observed the
ruddy mongoose (//. smithii) to be the most
numerous species in Wilpattu National Park, in
northwest Sri Lanka. The same appears to be
true for Block I of the Ruhuna National Park, in
southeast Sri Lanka. It is interesting to note that
although both Parks support only three species
of mongoose, they occur in different combinations:
H . smithii , H. edwardsii and H.fuscus in Wilpattu,
and H. smithii , H. edwardsii and H. vitticollis in
Ruhuna. The stripe-necked mongoose replaces the
brown mongoose in Ruhuna. Furthermore, while
H. fuscus is the rarest of the three species in
Wilpattu (Eisenberg and Lockhart, 1972), in
Ruhuna, H. edwardsii is the least common.
Conclusion
The biological richness and diversity of
Block I of Ruhuna National Park is reflected by
the number of carnivore species it supports. The
fact that three species of mongoose are sympatric
in the area, points to the existence of a much
larger community of animals supporting them.
Of the three species, the most abundant and
conspicuous is the ruddy mongoose. The three
species are catholic in their diet and appear to
have restricted home ranges. All three species
appear active during the day and may extend their
activity period to the evenings as well. The three
species of mongoose are legally protected in Sri
Lanka. The principal threat to them comes from
the use of toxic agro-chemicals in farming areas
that surround the protected areas. Strictly
controlled use of such poisons in and around
livestock areas, particularly near wildlife
reserves, is needed. At the same time, in areas of
high predation by mongooses, the losses should
be offset by some sort of compensation by the
Department of Wildlife Conservation to ensure
that man and mongoose coexist peacefully.
References
Balasubramaniam, S., Ch. Santiapillai & M.R. Chambers utilisation by the spotted deer Axis axis (Erxleben,
(1980): Seasonal shifts in the pattern of habitat 1777) in the Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka.
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Spixiana3 : 157-166.
Corbet, G.B. & J.E. Hill (1992): The Mammals of the
Indomalayan Region: A systematic review. Oxford
University Press, Oxford.
Eisenberg, J.F. & M. Lockhart (1972): An ecological
reconnaissance survey of Wilpattu National Park,
Ceylon. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology
101: 1-118.
Fredga, K. (1972): Comparative chromosome studies in
mongooses, I. Hereditas 71: 1-74.
1UCN (1990): IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected
Areas, IUCN, Gland.
Johnsingh, A.J.T. ( 1 978): Some aspects of the ecology and
behaviour of the Indian Fox — Vulpes bengalensis
(Shaw). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75: 397-405.
Kingdon, J. (1977): East African Mammals. An Atlas of
Evolution in Africa. Volume III A. Carnivores.
Academic Press, London.
Lekagul, B. & J.A. McNeely (1977): Mammals of
Thailand. Association for the Conservation of
Wildlife, Bangkok, Thailand.
Mueller-Dombois, D. (1972): Crown distortion and
elephant distribution in the woody vegetations of
Ruhuna National Park, Ceylon. Ecology 53(2): 208-
226.
Palomares, F. & M. Delibes ( 1 993): Resting ecology and
behaviour of Egyptian mongooses ( Herpestes
ichneumon) in southwestern Spain. J. Zool. Lond.
230: 557-506.
Petter, G. (1969): Interpreation evolutive des caracteres
de la denture des viverrides africains. Mammalia
33: 607-625.
Phillips, W.W.A. (1984): Manual of the Mammals of
Ceylon. Wildlife & Nature Protection Society,
Colombo. 2nd edn.
Piementel, D. ( 1 955): Biology of the Indian mongoose in
Puerto Rico. J. Mammal 36: 62-68.
Pocock, R.I. (1939): The Fauna of British India:
Mammalia. Primates and Carnivora. London.
Prater, S.H. (1971): The Book of Indian Animals. Oxford
University Press, Bombay.
Ramachandran, K.K. (1985): A note on the scavenging
behaviour of stripe-necked mongoose on Tiger’s kill.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82: 182-193.
Santiapillai, Ch., M.R. Chambers & S. Balasubramaniam
(1981): A preliminary study of bark damage by
cervids in the Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka.
Spixiana 4(3): 247-254.
Taylor, M. (1970): Locomotion in some East African
viverrids. J. Mammal. 51: 42-51 .
Tomich, P.Q. (1969): Movement patterns of the mongoose
in Hawaii. J. Wildl. Manage. 33: 576-584.
214
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2). AUG. 2000
AVIAN SPECIES INVOLVED IN POLLINATION AND SEED DISPERSAL
OF SOME FORESTRY SPECIES IN HIMACHAL PRADESH1
M.L. Narang, R.S. Rana and Mukesh Prabhakar2
Key words: Pollination, Bombax ceiba Linn., Celtis australis Linn.,
seed eaters, Pycnonotidae
Studies on avian species involved in pollination and seed dispersal of some forestry species have
been carried out since 1994 in the University campus at Nauni, Solan in Himachal Pradesh.
During the study, 31 species of birds belonging to 13 families and 4 orders were recorded interacting
with 28 species of trees and shrubs. Of the 31 species of birds recorded, 10 were involved in
pollination alone, another 10 contributed to pollination and seed dispersal, while 8 species were
involved in seed dispersal only. The remaining 3 species, all parakeets, were found to be seed
eaters, though two of them were involved in pollination. Our study revealed that relative abundance
of bulbuls (Family: Pycnonotidae) was very high, as nectarivores and as seed dispersal agents,
followed by mynas (Family: Sturnidae). The members of the family Pycnonotidae are, therefore.
important agents in cross pollination and also in
Introduction
The 1 ,200 species of birds found in India
constitute an important component of our agro-
and forest ecosystems. It is well recognised now
that birds play an important role in shaping our
economy. Realising the importance of birds for
an agricultural country like India, Salim Ali
(1936) laid the foundation of economic ornitho-
logy. The literature on economic ornithology as
reviewed by Mehrotra and Bhatnagar ( 1 979), and
recently by Dhindsa and Saini (1994), suggest
that the role of birds in relation to agriculture
and horticulture has received the attention of
many workers (Mason and Lefroy 1912, Hussain
and Bhalla 1937, Mukherjee 1969-76, Toor and
Ramzan 1974, Mathew et al. 1980, Narang and
Lamba 1984 and Narang 1986). Scientists
working under the All India Network Programme
(AINP) on Agricultural Ornithology have also
contributed to the subject. However, the role of
birds in pollination and seed dispersal of various
forestry species has received little attention from
Indian ornithologists so far. The literature on
pollination by birds was reviewed by Subramanya
'Accepted October, 1999
2Dr. Y.S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry,
Nauni-Solan 173 230, Himachal Pradesh, India.
seed dispersal.
and Radhamani (1993). According to them, the
role of birds in pollination was studied by Singh
1929, Ali 1932, Kannan 1980 and Davidar 1985.
Several publications on birds feeding on wild fruits
are available (Ali 1931, Faruqui etal. 1960, Howe
and Estabrook 1977, Shahabuddin 1993,
Balasubramanian 1995, 1996 and Rajsekhar
1995).
This work was aimed to (i) study the bird
species involved in the pollination of Bombax
ceiba Linn, and the seed dispersal of Morus alba
Linn., Celtis australis Linn, and a shrub Coriaria
nepalensis Wall., and (ii) to record in general
the bird species involved in pollination and seed
dispersal of some important forest trees/shrubs.
Material and Methods
The study initiated in 1994 was carried out
at the Naum campus of the University of
Horticulture and Forestry, Solan (30° 50* N, 77°
IT E and 1,250 m above msl). The campus is
spread over an area of 550 ha, most of it under
agroforestry ecosystems. Approximately 200
species of trees and shrubs have been recorded
from the campus so far (Sindhi 1996).
The study area was visited twice a week in
the morning for one hour and tree-bird
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
215
A VI AN SPECIES INVOL VED IN POLLINA TION AND SEED DISPERSAL
interactions recorded using 7x50 field binoculars.
Ten trees each of Bombax ceiba (Linn.), Morus
alba Linn, and C eltis australis Linn, were
identified as study sites. Record of birds with
remarks, whether feeding on nectar or fruit, was
maintained for each tree/shrub and for each visit.
Data pertaining to bird species diversity per tree/
shrub and their relative abundance was also
recorded.
Results and Discussion
A total of 31 species of birds (Table 1)
belonging to 13 families and 4 orders were
recorded interacting with 28 species of trees and
shrubs (Table 2). Out of the 31 species of birds
recorded, 1 0 were involved in pollination alone,
10 contributed to pollination and seed dispersal,
while 8 species were agents of seed dispersal only
(Table 1). The slatyheaded parakeet Psittacula
himalayana was recorded to be a seed eater,
whereas the Alexandrine parakeet Psittacula
eupatria and plum-headed parakeet Psittacula
cyanocephala, though contributing to cross
pollination, did not contribute to seed dispersal,
and were found to be seed eaters.
Birds as pollinators: During the present
study, 22 species of birds were recorded sipping
nectar from 1 1 tree species, 2 shrubs and 2
ornamental plants (Table 3). While doing so, the
bill and forehead of the bird gets smeared with
pollen. The birds feeding on nectar, therefore,
contribute to the cross pollination of trees, shrubs
and ornamental plants visited by them.
A total of 58 bird species belonging to 16
families and 4 orders have been recorded as
flower birds (Subramanya and Radhamani 1993).
During this study, 9 more have been recorded as
pollinators, taking the total to 67. Nearly 70%
of the bird species frequented more than one
species of plant for nectar (Table 3).
The semal tree Bombax ceiba Linn., which
flowers during March-April, was the most
preferred tree species. A total of 19 species of
birds were observed sipping nectar on semal
Table 1
BIRD COMMUNITY VISITING FOREST SPECIES
FOR NECTAR (N) AND FRUITS (F)
Bird species
Common Name Scientific Name
N/F
Alexandrine parakeet
Psittacula eupatria
N & F(P)
Plum-headed parakeet
Psittacula cyanocephala
N & F(P)
Slatyheaded parakeet
Psittacula himalayana
F(P)
Asian koel
Eudynamys scolopacea
F
Great barbet
Megalaima virens
F
Bluethroated barbet
Megalaima asiatica
F
Eurasian golden oriole
Oriolus oriolus
F
Spot-winged starling
Saroglossa spiloptera
N
Chestnut-tailed starling Sturnus malabaricus
N
Common myna
Acridotheres tristis
N&F
Jungle myna
Acridotheres fuscus
N&F
Redbilled blue magpie
Urocissa erythrorhyncha
N&F
Large-billed crow
Corvus macrorhynchos
N&F
Rufous treepie
Dendrocitta vagabunda
F
Grey treepie
Dendrocitta formosae
F
Himalayan bulbul
Pycnonotus leucogenys
N&F
Redvented bulbul
Pycnonotus cafer
N&F
Black bulbul
Jungle babbler
Hypsipetes
madagascariensis
Turdoides striatus
N&F
N&F
Redbilled leiothrix
Leiothrix lutea
F
Rufous sibia
Heterophasia capistrata
N
Flycatcher
Muscicapa sp.
N
Grey-hooded warbler
Seicercus xanthoschistos
N
Dark-throated thrush
Turdus ruficollis
F
Great tit
Parus major
N
Purple sunbird
Nectarinia asiatica
N
Crimson sunbird
Aethopyga siparaja
N
Oriental white-eye
Zosterops palpebrosus
N&F
House sparrow
Passer domesticus
N
Russet spairow
Passer rut Hans
N
Common rosefinch
Carpodacus erythrinus
N&F
F(P) : Seed eater
(Table 4), followed by coral tree Erythrina indica
Lamk., which attracted 11 bird species.
Woodfordia floribunda Salisb., which flowers
during April-May, was visited by 8 bird species.
During this period, the forehead of oriental white-
eye Zosterops palpebrosus was found smeared
with brown pollen grains, the result of its feeding
on the nectar of Woodfordia floribunda Salisb.,
during which the pollen was brushed on to the
forehead. Another ornithophilous tree Butea
monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. was visited by 5 bird
216
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A VIAN SPECIES INVOL VED IN POLLINA TION AND SEED DISPERSAL
Table 2
SPECIES OF PLANTS VISITED BY BIRDS FOR
NECTAR (N) OR FRUITS (F)
Plant species
Family
N/F
Bignonia venusta Ker-Gawl .
Bignoniaceae
N
Bombax ceiba Linn.
Bombacaceae
N
Ehretia acuminata R.Br.
Boraginaceae
F
Bauhinia variegate Linn.
Caesalpiniaceae N
Coriaria nepalensis Wall, (shrub)
Xylosma longifolium Clos.
Coriariaceae
F
(off season flowering plant)
Woodfordia floribunda
Flacourtiaceae
N
Salisb. (shrub)
Hibiscus mutabilis Linn.
Lythraceae
N
(ornamental plant)
Malvaceae
N
Azadirachta indica A. Juss.
Meliaceae
F
Ficus palmata Forsk.
Moraceae
F
Ficus religiosa Linn.
Moraceae
F
Moms alba Linn.
Moraceae
F
Eucalyptus globulus Labi 11
Myrtaceae
N
Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub.
Papilionaceae
N
Erythrina indica Lamk.
Papilionaceae
N
Ougenia oojeinensis (Roxb.)
Papilionaceae
N
Punica granatum Linn.
Punicaceae
N
Crataegus crenulata Roxb.
Prunus cerasoides D. Don.
Rosaceae
F
(off season flowering plant)
Rosaceae
N
Pmnus sp.
Rosaceae
N
Pyms pashia Buch.-Ham. ex
Rosaceae
N
D. Don
N&F
Rosa moschata Hook, (shrub)
Rosaceae
F
Rubus ellipticus Smith (shrub)
Leptodermis lanceolatus
Rosaceae
F
Wall, ex DC (shrub)
Rubiaceae
N
Osyrus arborea (Wall.) ex DC (shrub) Santalaceae
F
Solatium nigmm Linn.
Solanaceae
F
Grewia optiva Drumm. ex Burr.
Tiliaceae
F
Celtis australis Linn.
Urticaceae
F
species. The small bird community of this species
could be attributed to its small population in the
study area.
Kannan (1980) discovered that flower
nectar is an important item of the sunbird’s diet.
During the present study, purple sunbird
Nectarinia asiatica, a summer migrant in the
University campus, was seen to visit 9 species of
bird flowers. The crimson sunbird Aethopyga
siparaja was recorded frequenting two species
of ornamental plants, namely Hibiscus mutabilis
Linn., Bignonia venusta Ker-Gawl., a climber
and Woodfordia floribunda Salisb., a shrub.
Crimson sunbirds were, however, partial to the
nectar of ornamental plants, which they were
observed sipping through the regular flower
opening, and had also adopted a short cut method
to reach the nectar. Even the unopened flowers
of Hibiscus mutabilis Linn, were robbed of their
nectar by these birds.
A few species of trees/shrubs flower during
September-November, when the breeding season
of birds is over. The Oriental white-eye Zosterops
palpebrosus, a specialized nectar-feeder, was
observed visiting Leptodermis lanceolatus Wall.,
a shrub that flowers after the birds’ breeding
season. It also visited Prunus cerasoides D. Don.,
a plant flowering outside the breeding period,
for nectar. The Himalayan bulbul Pycnonotus
leucogenys, a non-specialized nectar-feeder, was
also recorded frequenting the plants of Prunus
cerasoides D. Don. for nectar during its non-
breeding period in September-October.
Kannan (1980) has termed the
Nectariniidae (sunbirds), Zosteropidae (white-
eyes), Irenidae (leafbirds) and Dicaeidae
(flowerpeckers) as specialized nectar-feeders
among Indian birds. Out of these, sunbirds and
white-eyes are the important flower birds (i.e.
flower visitors) of the study area (Table 3).
Leafbirds are not represented in the study area,
and flowerpeckers are rare during the flowering
period. Amongst the non-specialized nectar-
feeders, bulbuls (Pycnonotidae) especially the
Himalayan bulbul Pycnonotus leucogenys, were
found to be the prominent nectar-feeders,
followed by mynas and starlings (Stumidae).
Birds as seed dispersal agents: As per
our study, 21 bird species belonging to 10 families
were observed feeding on the fruits of 14 plant
species, which include 5 shrubs and a herb (Table
5). Out of the 21 avian species observed feeding
on fruits, 3 species of parakeets were found to be
seed eaters and did not help in seed dispersal.
The two resident species of parakeets i.e.
Psittacula eupatria and Psittacula cyanocephala
were recorded as feeding on and rendering
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
217
A VI AN SPECIES INVOL VED IN POLLINA TION AND SEED DISPERSAL
Table3
FLOWER BIRDS OF THE STUDY AREA AND PLANT SPECIES VISITED BY THEM
Bird species
Plant species visited
Common Name
Scientific Name
Alexandrine parakeet
Psittacula eupatria
Bombax ceiba Linn.
Plum-headed parakeet
Psittacula cyanocephala
Bombax ceiba Linn.
Spot-winged starling
Saroglossa spiloptera
Bombax ceiba Linn.
Woodford ia floribunda Salisb.
Chestnut-tailed starling
Stumus malabaricus
Bombax ceiba Linn.
Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub.
Woodfordia floribunda Salisb.
Common myna
Acridotheres tristis
Bombax ceiba Linn.
Erythrina indica Lamk.
Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub.
Eucalyptus globulus Labill.
Jungle myna
Acridotheres fuscus
Bombax ceiba Linn.
Erythrina indica Lamk.
Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub.
Large-billed crow
Corvus macrorhynchos
Bombax ceiba Linn.
Erythrina indica Lamk.
Redbilled blue magpie
Urocissa erythrorhyncha
Bombax ceiba Linn.
Himalayan bulbul
Pycnonotus leucogenys
Bombax ceiba Linn.
Woodfordia floribunda Salisb.
Erythrina indica Lamk.
Prunus cerasoides D. Don.
Pninus sp.
Xylosma longifolium Clos.
Redvented bulbul
Pycnonotus cafer
Bombax ceiba Linn.
Eiythrina indica Lamk.
Black bulbul
Hypsipetes madagascariensis
Bombax ceiba Linn.
Erythrina indica Lamk.
Jungle babbler
Turdoides striatus
Bombax ceiba Linn.
Eiythrina indica Lamk.
Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub.
Rufous sibia
Heterophasio capistrata
Bombax ceiba Linn.
Erythrina indica Lamk.
Flycatcher
Muscicapa sp.
Bombax ceiba Linn.
Woodfordia floribunda Salisb.
Grey-hooded warbler
Seicercus xanthoschistos
Ougenia oojeinensis (Roxb.)
Great tit
Parus major
Bombax ceiba Linn.
Purple sunbird
Nectarinia asiatica
Bombax ceiba Linn.
Woodfordia floribunda Salisb.
Erythrina indica Lamk.
Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub.
Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don
Prunus sp.
Bauhinia variegata Linn.
Piinica granatum Linn.
Bignonia venusta Ker-Gawl.
Crimson sunbird
Aethopyga siparaja
Hibiscus mutabilis Linn.
Bignonia venusta Ker-Gawl.
Woodfordia floribunda Salisb.
218 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
A VIA N SPECIES IN VOL VED IN POLLINA TION A ND SEED DISPERSA L
Table 3 (contd.)
FLOWER BIRDS OF THE STUDY AREA AND PLANT SPECIES VISITED BY THEM
Bird species
Plant species visited
Common Name
Scientific Name
Oriental white-eye
Zosterops palpebrosus
Bombax ceiba Linn.
Erythrina indica Lamk.
Woodfordia floribunda Salisb.
Ougenia oojeinensis (Roxb.)
Prunus cerasoides D. Don.
Prunus sp.
Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don
Leptodermis lanceolatus Wall.
House sparrow
Passer domesticus
Bombax ceiba Linn.
Erythrina indica Lamk.
Russet sparrow
Passer rutilans
Bombax ceiba Linn.
Common rosefinch
Carpodacus erythrinus
Woodfordia floribunda Salisb.
Table 4
RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF BIRDS ON FOUR PLANT SPECIES
Bird species Relative abundance (%)
Common Name
Scientific Name
1
2
3
4
Alexandrine parakeet
Psittacula eupatria
3.22
-
*.656
-
Plum-headed parakeet
Psittacula cyanocephala
6.17
-
*5.45
-
Asian koel
Eudynamys scolopacea
-
2.08
-
-
Bluethroated barbet
Megalaima asiatica
-
-
4.19
-
Eurasian golden oriole
Oriolus oriolus
-
-
-
3.17
Spot-winged starling
Saroglossa spiloptera
1.46
-
-
-
Chestnut-tailed starling
Sturnus malabaricus
2.05
-
-
-
Common myna
Acridotheres tristis
2.66
-
26.18
23.80
Jungle myna
Acridotheres fuscus
2.71
14.58
-
7.93
Redbilled blue magpie
Urocissa erythrorhyncha
1.14
8.33
-
-
Large-billed crow
Corvus macrorhynchos
11.20
-
16.36
-
Grey treepie
Dendrocitta formosae
-
-
7.27
-
Himalayan bulbul
Pycnonotus leucogenys
21.47
20.83
21.44
20.63
Redvented bulbul
Pycnonotus cafer
5.18
16.66
2.72
3.17
Black bulbul
Hypsipetes madagascariensis
14.34
1 6.66
4.03
6.34
Jungle babbler
Turdoides striatus
5.13
-
-
11.11
Redbilled leiothrix
Leiothrix lutea
-
2.08
-
-
Rufous sibia
Heterophasia capistrata
3.25
-
-
-
Rufous treepie
Dendrocitta vagabunda
-
-
5.75
14.28
Flycatcher (unidentified)
999
0.61
-
-
-
Darkthroated thrush
Turdus ruficollis
-
4.16
-
-
Great tit
Parus major
4.61
-
-
-
Purple sunbird
Nectarinia asiatica
4.14
-
-
-
Oriental white-eye
Zosterops palpebrosus
3.07
-
-
9.52
House sparrow
Passer domesticus
1.53
-
-
-
Russet sparrow
Passer rutilans
6.06
-
-
-
Common rosefinch
Carpodacus erythrinus
-
14.58
-
-
1 . Bombax ceiba Linn. 2. Morns alba Linn. 3. Celtis australis Linn. 4. Coriaria nepalensis Wall.
*Both the species of parakeets are seed eaters
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
219
A VI AN SPECIES INVOL VED IN POLLINA TION AND SEED DISPERSAL
Table 5
AVIAN SPECIES INVOLVED IN SEED DISPERSAL
Bird species
Plant visited
Common Name
Scientific Name
* Alexandrine parakeet
Psittacula eupatria
Celt is australis Linn.
*Plum-headed parakeet
Psittacula cyanocephala
Celtis australis Linn.
* Slaty headed parakeet
Psittacula himalayana
Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don.
Asian koel
Eudynamys scolopacea
Morns alba Linn.
Great barbet
Megalaima virens
Ficus religiose Linn.
Bluethroated barbet
Megalaima asiatica
Ficus religiosa Linn.
Celtis australis Linn.
Eurasian golden oriole
Oriolus oriolus
Coriaria nepalensis Wall .
Common myna
Acridotheres tristis
Celtis australis Linn.
Ficus religiosa Linn.
Ficus palmata Forsk.
Coriaria nepalensis Wall.
Solatium nigrum Linn.
Jungle myna
Acridotheres fuscus
Morns alba Linn.
Ficus religiosa Linn.
Coriaria nepalensis Wall.
Redbilled blue magpie
Urocissa erythrorhyncha
Moms alba Linn.
Rubus ellipticus Smith
Large-billed crow
Corvus macrorhynchos
Celtis australis Linn.
Rufous treepie
Dendrocitta vagabunda
Celtis australis Linn.
Coriaria nepalensis Wall.
Grey treepie
Dendrocitta formosae
Celtis australis Linn.
Himalayan bulbul
Pycnonotus leucogenys
Celtis australis Linn.
Moms alba Linn.
Coriaria nepalensis Wall.
Azadirachta indica A. Juss.
Ficus religiosa Linn.
Grewia optiva Drurnm. ex Burr.
Ficus palmata Forsk.
Crataegus crenulata Roxb.
Redvented bulbul
Pycnonotus cafer
Moms alba Linn.
Coriaria nepalensis Wall.
Grewia optiva Roxb.
Osyrus arbor ea (Wall.) ex DC
Celtis australis Linn.
Black bulbul
Hypsipetes madagascariensis
Azadirachta indica A. Juss.
Morns alba Linn.
Celtis australis Linn.
Ficus religiosa Linn.
Rosa moschata Hook.
Ehretia acuminata R.Br.
Coriaria nepalensis Wall.
Jungle babbler
Turdoides striatus
Coriaria nepalensis Wall.
Redbilled leiothrix
Leiothrix lutea
Moms alba Linn.
Dark-throated thrush
7 urdus ruficollis
Morns alba Linn.
Ficus religiosa Linn.
Oriental white-eye
Zosterops palpebrosus
Coriaria nepalensis Wall.
Common rosefinch
Carpodacus eiythrinus
Moms alba Linn.
* Three species of parakeets are seed eaters
220
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
A VIA N SPECIES IN VOL VED IN POLLINA TIONAND SEED DISPERSA L
unviable the seeds of Celtis australis Linn. The
third species Psittacula himalayana, a winter
migrant was recorded to be a seed eater of Pyrus
pashia (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don.). The remaining
1 8 avian frugivores contributed to seed dispersal.
The true role of these birds in plant propagation
could not be assessed, as the viability of seeds
passed out by the birds was not tested.
Maximum bird density was recorded on
mulberry trees Morus alba Linn, which were
visited by 9 bird species in April (Table 4). The
red colour of the ripening fruits is probably the
reason for high density and diversity of birds, as
fruit colour is one of the factors determining fruit
choice by birds (Wheelwright and Janson 1985).
Mulberry fruit, which constitutes an important
food item for birds in the study area, ripens at
the same time as the breeding season of birds.
Fruit of khirak Celtis australis Linn, starts
maturing in August-September. During the early
period of ripening, it is eaten by parakeets and
barbets. But it is during the winter (December-
January) when insect food is reduced, that these
trees are visited by 10 species of avian frugivores
(Table 4). Maximum species diversity was
exhibited on these trees during the winter
months. Celtis australis Linn, is thus an
important fruit crop that sustains 10 species of
avian frugivores for nearly half the year. All but
the two species of parakeets bring about seed
dispersal of this species.
Another forestry species in the study area
which is predominantly dispersed through an
avian frugivore, the black bulbul Hypsipetes
madagascariensis, is Azadirachta indica A. Juss.
Black bulbuls feed almost exclusively on the ripe
R E FE
Ali, S. ( 1 93 1 ): The role of sunbirds and flowerpeckers in
the propagation and distribution of tree parasite
Loranthus longiflorus Desr. in the Konkan (W.
India). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 144-149.
Ali,S. (1932): Flower-birds and bird-flowers in India. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 573-605.
Ali, S. (1936): Economic ornithology in India. Curr. Sci.
fruits of Azadirachta indica A. Juss. during
December-February.
Amongst the shrubs, Coriaria nepalensis
Wall, was the most preferred. Nine species of
avian frugivores were recorded visiting it for fruit
during April-May (Table 4). The seeds of this
shrub species are, therefore, dispersed mainly by
birds.
The results of our study show that the
relative abundance of Himalayan bulbul and
black bulbul was very high, both as a nectarivore
and as a seed dispersal agent (Table 4). Relative
abundance of Himalayan bulbul was highest as
a nectarivore in respect of Bombax ceiba Linn,
and as a frugivore in respect of Morus alba Linn.
The Himalayan bulbul was the second most
abundant on Celtis australis Linn, and also on
Coriaria nepalensis Wall. (Table 4). Similarly,
the black bulbul was the second most abundant
species as a nectarivore of Bombax ceiba Linn,
and as a frugivore of Morus alba Linn. Redvented
bulbul was an agent of pollination as well as seed
dispersal, but its abundance was poor. Overall,
the 3 species of bulbuls were agents of pollination
of 6 tree/shrub species and seed dispersal of 1 1
tree/shrub species. Common myna Acridotheres
tristis, though it was the most abundant frugivore
on Celtis australis Linn, and also on Coriaria
nepalensis Wall., was not recorded on Morus
alba Linn, and its abundance was poor as a
nectarivore. The abundance of other members
of the family Stumidae was also poor, both as
nectarivore as well as frugivore. The members
of the family Pycnonotidae are, therefore,
important agents in cross pollination and also in
seed dispersal.
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Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary. Newsletter for
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222
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
STUDIES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE LABIAL TEETH ROW STRUCTURE
IN RAN A CURTIPES JERDON TADPOLES1
Jinesh James, Thomas T. Valamparampil2 and Oommen V. Oommen3
( With one plate)
Key words: Rana curtipes, development, metamorphosis, labial teeth, tadpoles
The development of the labial teeth row structure of anuran tadpoles of the temperate regions has
been studied. However, similar studies on tropical species are scant. The present study is an
attempt to describe the ontogeny of the labial teeth row structure of Rana curtipes , an endemic
species of the Western Ghats of India. R. curtipes tadpole has the highest reported number of
labia! teeth rows, with marginal teeth, among tropical frogs.
Introduction
The teeth of frogs function primarily to
grasp prey, or to position it for swallowing. Their
distribution is known to be variable even among
closely related groups (Altig 1970). The oral
armature of the larvae differs from that of the
adults, as they differ in feeding habits.
The ontogeny of the labial teeth row
structure of anuran tadpoles inhabiting
temperate regions has been studied by several
workers (Taylor 1942, Zweifel 1964, Altig 1970,
Lee 1976, Webb and Korky 1977, Hero 1990
and Davies 1992). However, our knowledge of
the Indian amphibians is scant. Rao (1914), Lobo
(1961), Chari (1962), Daniel (1975), Inger et
al. (1984) and Sekar (1990a) have given brief
notes on the mouth parts of Indian amphibians.
Agarwal and Niazi (1980), and Dutta and
Mohanty-Hejmadi (1983) have reported the
ontogeny of the teeth row structure in Rana
tigerina (now Hoplobatrachus tigerinus). The
present paper describes changes in the teeth row
structure of Rana curtipes tadpoles during
metamorphosis.
Material and Methods
Fertilized eggs collected from natural habitat
‘Accepted July, 1999
3 Department of Zoology, S.B. College,
Changanacherry, Kerala 686 101 , India.
3 Department of Zoology, University of Kerala, Karyavattom,
Thiruvananthapuram 695 581 , Kerala, India.
were used for the study. Freshly collected eggs were
divided into groups of 50 and transferred to a large
aquarium (maintained at a photoperiod of 1 2L: 1 2D
at 29 ±2 °C) containing fresh pond water. After
hatching, the tadpoles were divided into groups of
10 to avoid overcrowding, and reared in an
aquarium of the same size (Group A). Water was
changed every second day, and the tadpoles were
fed ad libitum with boiled spinach. The developing
eggs and embryos were observed under binocular
microscope to note morphological changes at one
hour intervals. Embryos and larvae were staged
according to Gosner (1960) system for Rana
pipiens. Tadpoles of earlier stages were preserved
in 5% and later in 10% formaldehyde.
Morphological features of the oral armature were
studied, and the teeth row formula was determined
as per Altig (1970) modified by Webb and Korky
(1977), to introduce the “marginal teeth”. Tadpole
stages from feeding stage onwards were collected
from a natural habitat near Thekkady (76° 50 'E,
9° 45 'N), Kerala (Group B). Twenty to thirty
tadpoles were examined at each developmental
stage.
Results
The number of teeth rows changed with
growth. The tadpoles collected from swift waters
(stream) had more teeth rows than those reared
in the aquarium. A list of teeth row formulae of
tadpoles reared in the aquarium at 29 ±2 °C, and
those collected from a stream, have been
presented in Tables 1 and 2.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
223
THE LABIAL TEETH ROW STRUCTURE IN RANACURTIPES J£7?£>6W TADPOLES
Table 1
LABIAL TEETH ROW FORMULA OF RANA CURTIPES
TADPOLES
Stages
Group A
Reared in aquarium
Formula Percent
Group B
Collected from
natural habitat
(stream)
Formula
External
gill stage
Without teeth
Not collected
One external gill
l/0/2(l)
53
Not collected
covered stage
l/0/3(l)
47
Operculum
1/0/20)
20
Not collected
complete stage
2(2)/0/2(l )
53
Feeding stage
2(2)/0/3(l)
3(3)/0/3(l)
27
59
3(3)/0/3(l)
3(3)/0/4(l )
41
3(3)/0/4(l)
Prelimb stage
4(3-4)/0/4(l)
20
4(3-4 )/0/4(l)
5(3-5)/0/4(l)
46
5(3-5)/0/4(l)
5(3-5)/0/5(l)
26
5(3-5)/ 1/5(1)
5(3-5)/0/6(l )
8
6(3-6)/l/6(l)
Limb bud stage
5(3-5)/ 1 /5( 1 )
14
6(3-6)/l/6(l)
6(3-6)/0/6(l)
30
7(3-7)/2/6(l)
6(3-6)/l/6(l)
36
8(3-8)/3/7(l )
7(3-7)/l/6(l)
20
8(3-8)/4/8(l)
Foot paddle stage
7(3-7)/2/6(l )
27
9(3 -9 )/ 4/7 ( 1 )
9(3-9)/4/8(l )
8(3-8)/3/7(l)
7(3-7)/2/7(l )
34
8(3-8)/4/8(l )
8(3-8)/3/6(l)
39
9(3-9)/5/7(l )
Foot stage
7 (3 -7 )/2/7 ( 1 )
22
9(3-9)/5/8(l)
1 0(3-1 0)/5/8(l)
8(3-8)/2/8(l )
8(3-8)/0/7(l)
56
9(3-9)/2/7(l)
8(3-8)/2/6(l)
22
9(3-9)/3/8(l)
Well developed
7(2-7)/0/7(l)
36
9(3-9)/4/8(l)
1 0(3-1 0)/3/8(l )
8(3-8)/0/7(l)
hindlimb stage
8(3-8)/0/6(l )
31
9(2-9)/0/8(l)
8(2-8)/0/6(l)
33
9(3-9)/0/8(l)
One forelimb stage
7(1 -7)/0/4( 1 )
61
10(2- 10)/ 1/8(1)
1 0(3-1 0)/l/8(l)
9(3 -9)/0/6( 1 )
8(2-8)/0/6(l)
39
8(2-8)/0/7(l)
Both limb and
5( 1 -5)/0/3( 1-3)
8
7(1-7 )/0/6( 1 )
5(1 -5)/0/3(l-3)
tail stage
4(1 -4)/0/3(l -3)
32
4(1 -4)/0/2( 1 -2)
4(1 -4)/0/2(l-2)
33
3(1-3 )/0/3 ( 1 -3 )
Froglet stage
3(1-3 )/0/2( 1 -2 )
Without labial
27
Without labial
teeth
teeth
Hatching and external gill stage: The
stomodaeum, at the anterio-ventral region, was
a deep oval pit at the time of hatching. At the
external gill stage, it consisted of a pair of oval,
black, non-serrated beaks without labial teeth and
papillae. However, small indistinct ridges could
be seen on the lateral and ventral margins,
foreshadowing the labial teeth and papillae.
One external gill covered stage: Tadpoles
reached one gill covered stage with widened
mouth, and a single row of papillae on the sides
of the upper and lower jaws. The edges of the
lower jaw had a single row of papillae, the
anterior edge of the upper jaw lacked papillae.
The beaks became weakly serrated. At this stage,
53% of the tadpoles reared in the aquarium at
29 ±2 °C, had a teeth row formula of l/0/2(l) and
47% had l/0/3( 1 ); with a combined formula of 1/
0/2-3(l) (Table 2). There was only one uninter-
rupted row in the upper jaw. The number varied
from 2 to 3 in the lower jaw, the first being inter-
rupted by a medial gap. Marginal teeth were absent.
Operculum complete stage: At this stage,
20% of the tadpoles examined had l/0/2(l)
(Table 1), 53% had 2(2)/0/2(l), and 27% had
2(2)/0/3(l) formulae. The first row in the upper,
and the second and third in the lower jaw, when
present, were uninterrupted. However, the first
row in the lower, and the second in the upper
jaw, were centrally broken. In the majority of
tadpoles, teeth in the two jaws were weakly
developed. The combined teeth row formula was
1-2(2)70/2-3(1).
Feeding stage: A single row of labial
papillae appeared around the lateral and posterior
margin of the anterio-ventral mouth. The second
continuous row of teeth in the upper jaw appeared
for the first time. The third and fourth rows of
ventral jaw were poorly developed; marginal
teeth were not present at this stage. The teeth
row formula varied from 3(3)/0/3(l) to 3(3 )/0/
4(1), in two groups of tadpoles, and thus the
combined formula 3(3)/0/3-4(l) was the same
for both groups.
224
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THE LABIAL TEETH ROW STRUCTURE IN RAN A CURTIPES JERDON TADPOLES
James, Jinesh et al. : Rana curtipes
Plate 1
Fig. 1 : a. Mouth parts of a tadpole of Rana curtipes at foot paddle stage (stage 34).
b. Marginal teeth of a tadpole of R. curtipes at foot paddle stage (stage 34).
LT - labial teeth, MT - marginal teeth.
226
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
THE LABIAL TEETH ROW STRUCTURE IN RAN A CURTIPES JERDON TADPOLES
Table 2
COMBINED LABIAL TEETH ROW FORMULA OF RAN A CURTIPES TADPOLES
Stages
Group A
Reared in aquarium
Group B
Collected from
natural habitat (stream )
General combined
formula
External gill stage
Without teeth
Not collected
Nil
One external gill covered stage
l/0/2-3(l)
Not collected
l/0/2-3(l)
Operculum complete stage
l-2(2)/0/2-3(l)
Not collected
l-2(2)/0/2-3(l )
Feeding stage
3(3)/0/3-4(l)
3(3)/0/3-4(l)
3(3)/0/3-4(l)
Prelimb stage
4-5(3-5)/0/4-6(l)
4-6(3-6)/0- l/4-6(l)
4-6(3-6)/0- l/4-6(l )
Limb bud stage
5-7(3-7)/0- 1/5-60)
6-9(3 -9)/ l-4/6-8(l)
5-9(3-9)/0-4/5-8( 1 )
Foot paddle stage
7-8(3-8)/2 -3/6-70)
8-1 0(3-1 0)/3-5/7-8(l)
7-1 0(3-1 0)/2-5/6-8( 1 )
Foot stage
7-8(3-8)/0-2/6-7(l )
8-1 0(3-1 0)/2-4/7-8(l)
7-1 0(3-1 0)/0-4/6-8(l )
Well developed bindlimb stage
7-8(2-8)/0/6-7(l)
8-1 0(2-1 0)/0-l/7-8(l)
7-1 0(2-1 0)/0- l/6-8(l )
One forelimb stage
7-8(1 -8)/0/4-6(l)
7-9(1 -9)/0/6-7(l)
7-9(1 -9)/0/4-7(l)
Both limb and tail stage
3-5(1 -5)/0/2-3( 1-3)
3-5(l-5)/0/2-3(l-3)
3-5(1 -5)/0/2-3(l -3)
Froglet stage
Nil
Nil
Nil
Prelimb stage: The teeth row formulae of
the tadpoles reared at 29 ±2 °C were 20% 4(3-
4)/0/4(l), 46% 5(3-5)/0/4(l), 26% 5(3-5)/0/5(l)
and 8% 5(3-5)/0/6(l). The last row of the lower
jaw in 70% of the tadpoles was poorly developed.
The combined formula 4-5(3-5)/0/4-6(l)
indicated that, of 4 to 5 rows in the upper jaw,
the first two rows were uninterrupted, marginal
teeth were absent and in the lower jaw the teeth
rows varied from 4 to 6, with the first row
uninterrupted. Two rows of submarginal papillae
could be seen on the sides of the upper and lower
jaws.
The combined teeth row formula, 4-5
(3-5)/0/4-6(l), of tadpoles reared in the lab
indicates the presence of a maximum of five rows
in the upper jaw and six rows in the lower jaw.
The combined teeth row formula of tadpoles
collected from the stream was 4-6(3-6)/0-l/4-
6(1). One row of marginal teeth was observed
for the first time in 40% of the tadpoles.
Limb bud stage: In this stage of
development, Group A had 14% 5(3-5)/l/5(l),
30% 6(3-6)/0/6(l), 36% 6(3-6)/l/6(l) and 20%
7(3-7)/ 1/6(1) labial teeth row formulae. Group
B tadpoles varied widely in the number of teeth
rows at this stage (Table 1). One row of marginal
teeth appeared for the first time in tadpoles reared
in the aquarium. Another characteristic was the
development of two to three rows of sub-marginal
papillae on the sides of both jaws. The lower and
upper beaks were strong, serrated and
keratinized. As in some of the previous stages,
the last row of labial teeth in the lower jaw was
poorly developed, or incomplete. The combined
teeth row formula was 5-7 (3-7)/0-l/5-6(l) in
Group A and 6-9(3-9)/l -4/6-8( 1 ) in Group B.
Foot paddle stage: The combined teeth
row formulae of Group A [7-8 (3-8)/2-3/6-7( 1 )]
and Group B [8- 1 0(3- 1 0)/3-5/7-8( 1 )] indicated
that maximum upper labial, lower labial and
marginal teeth appeared for the first time in this
stage. Maximum upper labial teeth rows in
Group A were 8 and in Group B10. Similarly,
the maximum marginal teeth rows observed in
Group A were 3. In Group B, the minimum and
maximum marginal teeth rows were 3 and 5
respectively (Plate 1). All the rows of teeth in
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
227
THE LABIAL TEETH ROW STRUCTURE IN RANA CURTIPES JERDON TADPOLES
the upper and the lower jaws were well
developed.
Foot stage: In Group A tadpoles, 22% had
7(3-7)/2/7(l), 56% had 8(3-8)/0/7(l) and the
remaining 22% had 8(3-8)/2/6(l) formulae.
Thus, 78% of tadpoles of Group A at this stage
had 8 rows in the upper jaw. Another feature at
this stage was the reduction in marginal teeth.
56% in Group A had completely lost their
marginal teeth. Likewise, in Group B, the
majority had less than 4 rows of marginal teeth.
A comparison between foot paddle and foot
stages indicates that while there was an increase
in the percentage of labial teeth row number in
foot stage, a decrease in marginal teeth row
number also occurred in both groups of tadpoles
at the foot stage.
Well developed hindlimb stage: All the
tadpoles of Group A and a number of tadpoles
in Group B had lost their marginal teeth. Second
labial teeth row became broken in 69% of
tadpoles. Thus, reduction or shedding of labial
teeth had started at this stage. None of the
tadpoles had the full complement of teeth at this
stage.
One forelimb stage: Teeth row formula
varied from 7(1 -7)/0/4( 1 ) to 8(2-8)/0/6(l) in
Group A tadpoles. The combined formula of
Group B was 7-9(l-9)/0/6-7(l). In the majority
of tadpoles, both upper and lower jaw had
intermittently broken labial teeth rows. The
shedding of labial teeth had already started prior
to this stage. The rows of sub-marginal papillae
were absorbed, and limited to the comers of the
mouth. The number of papillae decreased in the
lower jaw. The horny beaks, both upper and
lower, became thick, colourless or white, except
at the edges where they were black at this stage.
Both limb and tail stage: In both groups
of tadpoles, the combined teeth row formula was
the same, 3-5(l-5)/0/2-3(l-3). All the rows in
the upper and lower jaws were interrupted with
lost teeth, and limited to the comers of the mouth.
The labial fringes, which were present on the
lateral sides of mouth in the previous stages, were
absorbed and papillae were seen in small clusters
at the comers of the mouth. The homy beaks
disappeared. The mouth widened, and the
comers reached the level of the posterior margin
of the eyes.
Discussion
The present study shows that there are
variations in the development of labial teeth row
structure in tropical anurans. The number of teeth
rows changes with the stage of development, and
for each stage there are individual variations.
Table 1 indicates that labial teeth appear at the
one external gill covered stage, and reach a full
complement of rows at the foot paddle stage.
Labial teeth rows maintain this full complement
up to the well-developed hindlimb stage. Before
the onset of metamorphosis, labial teeth begin
to shed and disappear with the completion of
metamorphosis. Dutta and Mohanty-Hejmadi
(1983) reported a similar pattern in Rana tigerinci
(now Hoplobatrachus tigerinus). Further, the
present study shows that the teeth rows in the
upper jaw vary from 1 to 10. Similarly, the labial
teeth rows in the lower jaw vary from 2 to 8. The
combined teeth row formula for Rana curtipes
according to Rao (1914) is 6-8(4-8)/6-8(l), and
Sekar (1990b) is 7(3-7)/5-8(l) or 7(4-7)/5-8(l).
The present observation agrees with the views
of Rao (1914) and Sekar (1990b) in the
maximum number of rows and nature of the first
row in the lower jaw.
The present study established that Rana
curtipes tadpoles have marginal teeth, which
make their first appearance in the prelimb stage
(Table 2), reach a maximum at the foot paddle
stage, and begin to disappear at the foot stage.
The number of marginal teeth varies from 0 to 5
in Rana curtipes. Similar findings have been
reported in R. pustulosa (Taylor 1942), R.
tarahumarae (Zweifel 1955) and R. macroglossa
(Volpe and Harvey 1958). But none have reported
228
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2). AUG. 2000
THE LABIAL TEETH ROW STRUCTURE IN RANA CURTIPES JERDON TADPOLES
the presence of marginal teeth in a tropical anuran.
Some differences were also found in the
number of teeth rows between aquarium reared
tadpoles, and those collected from their natural
stream habitat. The tadpoles developed in the
aquarium differ significantly from those collected
from streams in the number, pattern and
percentage of occurrence of labial and marginal
teeth rows. In Rana curtipes , 10 rows of labial
teeth in the upper and 8 rows in lower jaw
indicate that the species has the largest number
of labial teeth rows among tropical frogs. Labial
teeth row formulae reported by Inger et al. ( 1 984)
for R. temporalis [2(2)/0/2( 1 )], R. beddomi (now
Refer
Agarwal, S.K. & I. A. Ntazi (1980): Development of
mouthparts in the tadpoles of Rana tigerina Daud.
Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (Anim. Sci .) 89(2): 127-131.
Altig, R. (1970): A key to the tadpoles of the continental
United States and Canada. Herpetologica 26: 180-
207.
Chari, V.K. (1962): A description of the hitherto
undescribed tadpole and some field notes on the
fungoid frog, Rana malabarica Bibron. J. Bombay
not. Hist. Soc. 59(1): 71-76.
Daniel, J.C. (1975): Field guide to the amphibians of
western India. Part 3.7. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(2):
506-522.
Davies, M. ( 1 992): Early development of Limnodynastes
terraereginae and L. fletcheri (Anura :
Leptodactylidae : Limnodynastinae). Trans. R. Soc.
S. A list. 116(4): 117-122.
Dutta, S.K. & P. Mohanty-Hejmadi (1983): Ontogeny of
teeth row structure in Rana tigerina tadpoles.
J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 80: 517-528.
Gosner, K.L. (1960): A simplified table for staging anuran
embryos and larvae with notes on identification.
Herpetologica 16: 183-190.
Hero, J.M. (1990): An illustrated key to tadpoles occurring
in the central Amazon rainforest, Manaus, Amazonas,
Brazil. AmazonianaXI(2): 201-262.
Inger, R.F., H.B. Shaffer, M. Koshy & R. Bak.de (1984):
A report on a collection of amphibians and reptiles
from the Ponmudi, Kerala, South India. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 81(2): 406-427.
Lee, J.C. (1976): Rana maculata Brocchi, an addition to
Indirana beddomii) [4(4)/0/4( 1-2)] and
R. keralensis (now Limnonectes keralensis)
[2(2)/0/3], by Chari (1962) for R. malabarica
[170/2(1)] and by Sekar (1990b) for Rhacophorus
malabaricus [6(3-6)/0/3( 1 )], were less than those
of Rana curtipes. The maximum number
reported for R. tigerina (now Hoplobatrachus
tigerinus), by Dutta and Mohanty-Hejmadi
(1983), was 5(2-5)/0/(l-3).
The above observations reveal that Rana
curtipes has the largest number of labial teeth
rows among tropical anurans and the number
of teeth rows changes with the development of
tadpoles.
ENCES
the herpetofauna of Belize. Herpetologica * 32: 211-
214.
Lobo, L. ( 1 96 1 ): Some observations on the metamorphosis
of the frog Rana curtipes Jerdon. Zoologica: New
York Zool. Soc. 46:10: 103-104.
Rao, C.R.N. (1914): Larva of Rana curtipes Boul. Rec.
Ind. Mus. 10: 265-267.
Sekar, A.G.( 1 990a): Observations on the developmental
stages of tadpoles of the Malabar gliding frog
Rhacophorus malabaricus Jerdon, 1870 (Anura :
Rhacophoridae). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87(2):
223-226.
Sekar, A.G. (1990b): Notes on morphometry, ecology,
behaviour and food of tadpoles of Rana curtipes
Jerdon 1853 .J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87(2): 312-
313.
Taylor, E.H. (1942): Tadpoles of Mexican anura. Univ.
Kansas Sci. Bull. 28: 37-55.
Volpe, E.P. & S.M. Harvey (1958): Hybridization and
larval development in Rana palmipes Spix. Copeia
1958: 197-207.
Webb, R.G. & J.K. Korky ( 1 977): Variation in tadpoles of
frogs of the Rana tarahumarae group in western
Mexico (Anura : Ranidae). Herpetologica 33: 73-
82.
Zweifel, R.G. ( 1 955): Ecology, distribution and systematics
of the Rana boylei group. Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool.
54:207-292.
Zweifel, R.G. (1964): Distribution and life history of a
central American frog, Rana vibicaria. Copeia
1964(2): 300-308.
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2). AUG. 2000
229
BURROW PATTERN OF INDIAN METAD MILLARDIA (RA TTUS) MEL TAD A GRA Y 1
N.K. Pandey and A.S. Bhadauria2
( With one text-figure)
Key words: Burrow pattern, Millar diet meltada, brood chamber, emergency openings,
hoarding behaviour, bolt run
Burrow pattern in Millardia (Rattus) meltada Gray was studied by excavating ten burrows every
alternate month in 1992. Measurements of the burrows were recorded and found to be as follows:
average length 106.2 cm, breadth 45.8 cm, depth 38.1 cm and diameter of burrow openings
3.6 cm. The average number of brood chambers (1.13), food chambers (1.13), surface openings
(2.73), emergency openings (0.78), and rats (3.17), per burrow, were also noted. Hoarding
behaviour was studied by collecting food materials, the average being 50.12 gm per burrow.
M. meltada was found to have a very simple burrow structure with no boltruns. A hole covered
with a thin layer of soil at the distal end was used during emergency. The burrows had one to four
openings at the surface, with a heap of excavated soil near one of the openings. The burrows
were deeper in summer than in winter.
Introduction
Rats are unwelcome associates of mankind
from time immemorial. They cause enormous
losses to agricultural crops at every stage, from
production to consumption. According to one
estimate, rats inflict damage of 6 to 10% on
standing crops and 5 to 15% in storage (Jain and
Tripathi, 1988). Besides feeding voraciously, they
contaminate the food material with their droppings,
urine and hair. Rats are carriers of many diseases
that afflict humans and domestic animals.
Most of the rat species construct burrows
and thus threaten conservation work. The Indian
desert gerbil, Meriones hurrianae (Jerdon)
unearths about 17,000 kg soil per hectare, which
is blown away by strong wind, increasing the
area of sandy waste and barren land (Prakash,
1976). Little information is available on the
burrow pattern in different rat species, which is
of importance in rodent pest management.
Hence, the present study was undertaken.
'Accepted February, 1999
department of Entomology,
C.S. Azad University of Agriculture & Technology,
Kanpur 208 002, Uttar Pradesh, India.
Study Area
The burrow pattern of Indian metad,
Millardia (Rattus) meltada was studied by
digging burrows on five agricultural research
farms viz. Students Research Farm, Research
Farm, Oilseed Research Farm, New Dairy Farm
and Vegetable Research Farm of this University
and five villages viz. Gangpur, Gambhirpur,
Prempur, Singhpur and Bairy-Akbarpur located
in the development block Kalyanpur, Kanpur
Nagar (U.P.). Most of the study area was under
various cropping system. The main crops grown
were cereals, pulses, oilseeds and vegetables.
Material and Methods
The test species was identified at the
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. Burrows
of Millardia meltada were unearthed in 1 992 and
ten burrows studied in alternate months. The
morphometries of the burrows, i.e. their
openings, length, breadth, depth and number of
internal structures, like brood chambers, storage/
food chambers, boltruns, escape holes
(emergency openings), number of animals and
quantity of hoarded material were recorded. The
230
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2). AUG. 2000
BURROW PA TTERN OF INDIAN METAD
burrows generally had 1-4 openings on the
burrow surface. Live burrows were identified by
closing them in the evening and examining them
the next day. Open burrows with freshly
excavated soil were considered live. Atmospheric
temperature, relative humidity and rainfall were
recorded to correlate the burrowing pattern with
the meteorological conditions.
Results and Discussion
The structure of a M. meltada burrow is
depicted in Fig. 1 and its measurements are
presented in Table 1. The average length,
breadth, depth and diameter of burrow openings
were 106.2 cm, 45.8 cm, 38.1 cm and 3.6 cm
respectively. The average number of brood
chambers (1.13), food chambers (1.13), surface
openings (2.73), emergency openings (0.78) and
metads (3.17) were noted. The hoarded food
material (average 50.12 gm per burrow) was
generally present in the channels of the burrows;
specialised food chambers were also noted in
some cases. No boltruns were recorded in any
burrow.
M. meltada made very simple burrows with
a depth of 32.7 to 47.5 cm. The length and
breadth ranged from 89.1 to 124.9 cm and 32.9
to 68.3 cm, respectively. The burrows had one to
four clear openings and a heap of soil near one
of them. Females lived with young ones in a
burrow during parturition. The litters formed
separate burrows when they could move and feed
freely. Solitary females were found with an
average of 2.7 young ones in a burrow. Females
were observed placing smooth grasses in the
brood chambers.
There were no boltruns in the burrow
channels. Interestingly, in some cases the long,
upwardly directed branches of the burrow
channels ended in a very thin layer of soil at
the surface. The metads were observed running
out suddenly from these burrows by remov-
ing the thin soil layer in one stroke. These
structures formed emergency openings or escape
holes. Escape holes were observed in some
burrows with an average of 0.78 escape holes
per burrow.
The burrows were deeper during the
summer, the mean depth being 40.6 cm in April
and 47.5 cm in June and comparatively shallow
during the winter (33.8 cm and 32.7 cm in
Surface opening
Emergency opening
Brood chamber
Food chamber
Heap of excavated soil
Fig. 1: Burrow pattern of Millardia ( Rattus ) meltada Gray
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
231
BURROW PA TTERN OF INDIAN METAD
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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
BURROW PA TTERN OF INDIAN MET AD
October and December, respectively). The
mean atmospheric temperature during 1992 was
33.98 °C in June and 16.34 °C in December.
The length of the burrow was maximum
during the summer (mean 124.9 cm in June)
and minimum in the monsoon (mean 89.1 cm
in August). During the winter, the burrow length
was high (mean 118.9 cm in December). The
breadth was highest in October (mean 68.3 cm)
and lowest in April (mean 32.9 cm).
The length, breadth, depth and surface
openings found in this study are in accordance
with those reported by Chopra and Sood (1980),
but they have reported the presence of boltruns
and absence of brood chambers, contrary to our
observations.
In R. meltcida pallidior , Rana and Prakash
(1980) reported 3-6 surface openings and 3-5
boltruns per burrow system, while in the present
Refer
Bhadauria, A.S. (1992): Studies on bio-ecology and
management of Indian Gerbil, ( Tatera indica indica
Hardwicke) and Bandicoot rat ( Bcindicota
bengcilensis Gray) in central U.P., Ph.D.
Dissertation, C.S. Azad University of Agriculture
and Technology, Kanpur 208 002.
Chopra, G. & M.L. Sood (1980): Burrow behaviour of
soft furred field rat, Rattus meltada Gray. Rodent
Newsletter 6(2): 9-10.
Jain, A.P. & R.S. Tripathi (1988): Chuha Prabandh,
C.A.Z.R.I. Monograph No. 35, Central Arid Zone
Research Institute, Jodhpur, pp. 1-24.
Prakash, 1. (1976): Rodent pest management: principles
and practices, C.A.Z.R.I. Monograph No. 4, Central
Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, pp. 1-28.
study, the mean number of surface openings were
2.73 with no boltruns.
Similar morphometric studies of Bandicota
bengcilensis burrows were done by Sagar and
Bindra (1968), and Sood and Gill (1978).
Likewise, Prakash (1981) made burrow measure-
ments of Meriones hurrianae , Tatera indica
and Gerbillus gleadowi in Rajasthan. Bhadauria
(1992) studied burrow patterns of Bandicota
bengalensis and Tatera indica and reported
measurements of similar surface openings,
bolt runs etc., which are in accordance with our
data.
Acknowledgement
We thank the Vice Chancellor, C.S. Azad
University of Agriculture and Technology,
Kanpur for facilities.
iNCES
Prakash, I. (1981 ): Behavioural patterns — Home range
ecology of the Indian Desert Gerbil, Meriones
hurrianae. C.A.Z.R.I. Monograph No. 10, Central
Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, pp. 40-41 .
Rana, B.D. & I. Prakash ( 1 980): Burrow system of Rattus
meltada pallidior in South-Eastern^ Rajasthan.
Proc. All India Workshop on Rodent Research and
Training , U.A.S., Bangalore: 15-16.
Sagar, P. & O.S. Bindra ( 1 968): A note on the burrowing
pattern of Lesser Bandicoot, Bandicota bengalensis
Gray in Punjab. Proc. Int. Symp. on Bionomics and
Control of Rodents. Kanpur, pp. 55-56.
Sood, M.L. & R.P.S. Gill ( 1 978): Burrowing pattern Proc.
Workshop Rodent Research , Central Arid Zone
Research Institute, Jodhpur, pp 8- 1 0.
■
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2), AUG. 2000
233
A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF
THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY — 38. PASSERINAE1
Saraswathy Unnithan2
(Continued from Vol. 93 (2), 251)
This part deals with 453 specimens of 21
species, subspecies and 5 ELs, up to no. 1956 in
the Indian handbook (10:87) and no. 24263 of the
Society’s register. We do not have specimens of 5
subspecies out of the 2 1 species and subspecies.
1938 Passer domesticus indicus Jardine
& Selby. (India, restricted to Bangalore by
Kinnear, 1925, Ibis : 751) Indian house sparrow.
3:170-72
85 : 57 males, 26 females, 2 unsexed.
1 Dehak, Nashkhil, 1 Bampur, Per
Baluchistan, 2 Gajar, Kalat, 1 Mastung,
Baluchistan, 1 Lahore, 2 Rawalpindi, 1 Jagadri,
2 Ambala, 1 Latura, 2 Campbellpur, Punjab, 2
Yoginath, Garhwal, 1 Ramgarh, Naini Tal, 1
Shogi, Patiala State, 1 Gama Ki Hatti, Dharmi
State, 13 Simla, 2 Lalsohara, Bahawalpur, 1
Bahawalpur Town Environ, 1 Manthar,
Cholistan, 5 Delhi, 1 Meerut, 8 Bharatpur, 1
Chaduva, Bhuj, 1 Changalra, Bhuj, 1 Kuarbet,
Banni, Kutch, 3 Karirohar, Kutch, 1 Nadiad,
Gujarat, 1 Gir Forest, 2 Nasardi, Nasik. 1 Colaba,
5 Bombay, 1 Worli, 1 Andheri, 3 Marole,
Salsette, 1 Murgimatta, 2 Sagar, Shimoga,
Mysore, I Maraiyur, Travancore, 1 Cape
Comorin, 1 Koira, Bonai, Orissa, 1 Satanwara,
Gwalior, 1 Kanpur, 1 Purulia, Manbhome, 1
Baghownie, Darbhanga, 2 Dibrugarh, Assam, 1
Bijapur, Nepal, 1 Hambentota, Sri Lanka.
Some of the northern birds are large (wing
78-79 mm) but the males lack the rich rufous of
parkini and are left with indicus, leaving a slight
overlap in the size range between this and
parkini. They include an albino from Bombay
city which could have been brought to Bombay
in captivity and released.
'Accepted April, 1999
'Bombay Natural History Society,
Hombill House, S.B. Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.
Measurements on p. 237.
1938a Passer domesticus confucius
(Bonaparte) (China, errore: ^Rangoon) 3: 172
12:9 males, 3 females.
5 Shwebo , U. Burma , 5 Port Blair, Andaman,
1 Sipighat, 1 Choldhari, S. Andaman.
The females are barely separable from
indicus from peninsular and eastern India, but
the colours of the males resemble parkini from
Kashmir, though both sexes are much smaller.
The race was accepted in Stuart Baker’s fauna,
but discarded by Ticehurst in his comments
( JBNHS 32: 346) as it was said to be based on a
single specimen, and again by Biswas (records
of Indian museum 45: 225), on the strength of a
male and female in the Indian Museum. No one
else appears to have looked into this matter, but
the specimens listed above are distinct, and those
from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are
presumably from Burma ( JBNHS 61: 569).
Measurements on p. 237.
1939 Passer domesticus parkini Whistler.
(Srinagar, Cashmere). Kashmir house sparrow
3: 173.
7: 4 males, 3 females.
1 Kashmir Valley, 1 Chashmashahi, Srinagar,
4 Leh environs, Ladakh, 1 Tshomarari Lake.
Larger and darker than indicus, females
are difficult to distinguish from bactrianus.
Measurements on p. 237.
1939a Passer domesticus bactrianus
Zarudny & Kudashev (Tashkent). Turkestan
house sparrow.
27: 10 males, 16 females, 1 unsexed.
6 U.S.S.R. 8 Chitral, 1 Manthar,
Cholistan, Bahawalpur, 1 Bhinmal, Jodhpur, 1 1
Bharatpur, Rajasthan.
Winter visitor. Birds ringed in Bharatpur
in 1962 (3), 1963 (1), and 1969 (1) were caught
in Kazakhistan (2) and Tadjiks tan (3) and named
234
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2), AUG. 2000
A CA TALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION
bactrianus by E.I. Gavrilov, Dement’ ev and
Gladkov, in the birds of the soviet union Vol. V.
P. 403 (1970). They have synonymised
bactrianus with griseogularis Sharpe,
(Kandahar) the Central Asian house sparrow.
Measurements on p. 237.
EL Passer domesticus domesticus
Linnaeus Sweden. Common house sparrow.
1 male from Szeged Hungary.
Measurements on p. 237.
EL Passer domesticus biblicus Hart.
Palestine. Near Asian house sparrow.
17: 13 males, 4 females.
I Residency, 1 Kazimaim, 2 Baghdad, 1
Shiraz, 1 Amara, 1 Kasviw, 1 Sheik Saad, 1
Bait-al-khalifa, 4 Haviplain, Samara; 4
Shat-el-Adhaim, Mesopotamia.
Palest of all subspecies of domesticus.
Measurements on p. 237.
1940 Passer hispaniolensis transcaspicus
Tschusi (Transcaucasia = Iolotan, Transcaspia).
Spanish sparrow.
57: 37 males, 20 females.
1 Yarkand, 1 Cairo market, Egypt, 2
Feluja, R. Euphrates, 3 Zorr R. Tigris, 2
Mesopotamia, 2 Shustar, S. Persia, 2 Shush,
Kain, Persia, 1 Amara, l Sheikh Saad, 2 Mishun,
Persian Gulf, l Tang, Mishun, 1 Sulebadar,
P. Gulf, 2 Seh Kaleh, Tun, P. Gulf, 12 Chitral, 1
Lalsohara, 1 Bahawalpur tn. env., 2 Jagadri, 2
Ambala, 2 Thanesar, Karnal dist., Punjab, 3
Ganjus Canal, Meerut, 13 Bharatpur, Rajasthan.
Females very similar to those of
domesticus , but with faint streaks on the breast,
and heavier bills.
Measurements on p. 237.
1 94 1 Passer montanus dilutus Richmond
(Kashgar, Eastern Turkestan). Afghan tree
sparrow 3-178
32, 16 males, 9 females, 7 unsexed.
2 Kafir Kaleh , Nr Meshed , 3 Ghirk , Nr.
Birjand, 2 Birjand, 1 Shwesh , Kain , 1 Sistan. 1
Shush , l Bunjar, Sistan Delta, Kain, 4
Nasratabad, Sistan, Kain, 3 Mohemabad, Persia,
1 East Persia ; 1 Wana, Waziristan, 4 Chitral,
NWFP, 1 Deh - Jotegh, 2 Quetta, 2 Chaman, 1
Zurtta, Baluchistan, 1 Tientsin, 1 Khotan, China.
It is the palest of all the subspecies of
Passer montanus.
Measurements on p. 237, 238.
1942 Passer montanus malaccensis
Dubois (Malacca). Malay tree sparrow.
21: 11 males, 10 females
1 Ambrang Village, Nepal; 1 Kurseong,
Sikkim; 1 Bumthang, 5 Tama, Central Bhutan,
1 Rongtong, 1 Deothang, 6 Gomchu, East
Bhutan; / Maymyo , 3 Shwebo, U. Burma , l
Padaung , Prome dist., C. Burma.
There are two distinct colour groups, one
pale brown from upper Burma, collected in 1908,
Maymyo (1913) and Padaung ( 1 929), and a very
dark group collected from Bhutan in March 1 966
and 1967(9 males and 5 females). A female from
Gomchu, E. Bhutan (16.iii. 1966) Regn. No.
25614 is with very dark brown or sooty black
head and tail and with under parts grey.
Measurements on p. 237, 238.
1943 Passer montanus tibetanus Baker
(Khumbalong, Tibet) Tibetan tree sparrow
3: 179.
nil
1944 Passer montanus hepaticus Ripley
(Tezu, Mishmi Hills, NE. Assam). Mishmi tree
sparrow 3: 177
6: 5 males, 1 female
2 Shillong, 1 Margherita, 1 Dibrugarh, 2
Tezu, Lohit Valley, Upper Assam.
Two Tezu specimens, collected in 1948, are
darker than the others collected in 1901 and
1908, and also than the malaccensis collected in
1908 (Burma), but are definitely paler than the
more recently collected malaccensis specimens
of Bhutan. The key in the handbook, Vol. 10.
p. 69 says that hepaticus is the darkest.
Measurements onp. 221, 238.
EL Passer montanus montanus Linn.
Common field (tree) sparrow.
1 Male Hungary, Europe.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
235
A CA TALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION
Measurements on p. 237.
EL Passer montanus transcaucasicus
Buturlin Akhaltsikhe. Transcaucasian field
sparrow.
1 male from Engeli , Persia
Measurements on p. 238.
1945 Passer pyrrhonotus Blyth
(Buhawalpore, Scinde). Sind jungle sparrow
3: 174.
16: 11 males, 5 females.
6 Lahore, 1 Phillaur, Jullunder dist. ,
1 Ferozepore, 1 Multan, 1 Mahmud Kot, Multan
dist., 2 Bahawalpur tn. env. 2 Sukkur, Sind,
2 no locality.
These specimens were collected from 1 893
to 1940. 5 males (1 Lahore, 1 Multan, 1 Mahmud
Kot, 2 no locality) have very light grey or almost
white under parts, the rest with ashy grey under
parts. Season or age of the specimen could not
be correlated with this change in the colouration.
Measurements on p. 238.
1946 Passer rutilans cinnamomeus
(Gould) N.W. Himalayas. Himalayan cimiamon
tree sparrow. 3:181
West Himalayan Birds
53: 34 males, 13 females, 6 unsexed.
2 Chitral Drosh, 2 Chitral Nagar,
3 Chitral, 3 Liddar Valley, 1 Yusmarg,
4 Kashmir, 2 Dalhousie, 1 Chandigarh, Ambala
dist., Punjab, 1 Keonthal St., 1 Patiala St.,
1 Fagu, Simla Hills, 1 Nichar, 13 Simla, 1 Kalka,
N.W.H.; 3 Lambathatch, 2 Mornaula,
1 Kedarnath, 1 Guptakashi, 1 Chamoli,
2 Garhwal, 1 Lohaghat, 2 Almora, 4 Mukteswar,
Nainital.
Bhutan Birds
14:9 males, 5 females
1 Gedu, W. Bhutan, 4 Bumthang, 2 Gyetsa,
1 Shamgong, C. Bhutan, 3 Rongtong, E. Bhutan,
3 Shillong.
Specimens 7980 and 7981 from Simla and
7993 from Shillong marked as males are in fact
in female plumage with the characteristic
conspicuous long white supercilium. Bhutan and
Shillong specimens are quite different from the
Kashmir, Punjab and Garhwal specimens. The
former, both males and females, are darker with
yellow almost absent in the plumage.
Measurements on p. 238.
1 947 Passer rutilans intensier Rothschild
(Mekong Valley). Yunnan cinnamon tree
sparrow. 3: 180
One male from Fortwhite, Chin Hills , U.
Burma.
Measurements on p. 238.
1947a Passer moabiticus yatii Sharpe
(Dedadi, Seistan, Western Afghanistan) Afghan
scrub sparrow
EL. Passer flaveolus Blyth (Pegu). Pegu
house sparrow.
7:5 males, 2 females.
3 Shwebo , U . Burma , / Ngaphaw ,
/ Prome , Prome Dt., 1 Ingabu, l Henzada,
Henzada Dt ., Burma.
Measurements on p. 238.
nil
1948 Petronia xanthocollis transfuga
(Hartert) Bagu, Kelat, Baluchistan. Sind
yellowthroated sparrow. 3:168
26: 14 males, 6 females, 6 unsexed.
1 Quarradah , 1 Bagdad , 2 Basra dist.,
Iraq , 1 Fao , Persian Gulf, 1 Rodkan, Kolwa,
1 Muradkhan, Kalat, Baluchistan, 1 Sardar
R. Haripur, NWFP, 2 Darazpur, Ambala dist.,
3 Ambala, Punjab, 1 Sairi, Patiala St., North-
West Himalaya, 1 Hamavas lake, Pali dist.,
1 Phulji, Larkana, Sind, 1 Jalor, Jodhpur,
1 Deesa, Palanpur, 5 Bhuj, Kutch, 1 Radhanpur,
1 Nadiad, 1 Vaghjipur, Mehsana dist.
7 specimens (4 from Kutch, 1 Nadiad,
1 Deesa and 1 Radhanpur) are marked by
Dr. Salim Ali as intergrades between transfuga
and xanthocollis. 6 specimens (5 males and one
unsexed) are with black bills (3 of them in
February, one in March, another in October and
the unsexed without date). Two of the unsexed
specimens are juveniles. A male specimen from
Muradkhan, Kalat collected on 8.ix. 1917 is very
236
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2), AUG. 2000
A CA TALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION
Table 1
MEASUREMENTS OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF BNHS
Wing (mm)
Bill (mm)
Tarsus (mm)
Tail (mm)
1 938-1 939a Passer domesticus subspp & ELs
Male
1938 indicus (57)
70-82 av. 74.8
(IH 70-82
9.5-11. 5 av. 10.5
from skull 13-15
19-20 av. 19.4
18-20
50-60 av- 55.5
49-61)
1938a confucius (9)
69-77 av. 72.7
(Baker 69-74)
9.5-12 av. 10.3
19-20 av. 19.3
50-57 av. 52.8
1 939 parkin i (4)
80(3), 85
(IH-74-85
10.5, 11 (2), 12
from skull 14-15
19,20(3)
19-20
55, 56, 60, 62
55-62)
1 939a bac trianus (10)
73-81 av. 76.5
(IH 75-8 1)
1 0.5-1 2 av. 11-3
1 7.5-19.5 av. 18.6
50-57, av. 55
EL. biblicus (13)
76-81 av. 78.6
(Dement’ev 76-79
av. 77.4
10- 12.5 av. 11.6
9.5-10 av. 9.9)
19-20 av. 19.6
48-60 av. 55.6
EL. domesticus ( 1 )
83
(Dement’ev 73-83
12
9-11 av. 9.9)
20
56
Female
1938 indicus (26)
66-79 av. 72.1
(IH 70-80
9.5-11. 5 av. 10.6
from skull 13-15
19-20 av. 19.1
18-20
45-57 av. 51.7
51-57)
confucius (3)
70 (2), 76
(Baker 65-77)
10, 10.3, 11
19, 20 (2)
45,49, 55
parkini (3)
75,76(2)
73-16
11-5(3)
from skull 13-15
19,19.2, 19.7
19-20
53,56,57
52-67)
bactrianus (16)
73-80 av. 75.4
(IH -72-78)
11. 1-12.2 av. 11.4
17.6-21 av. 19.06
53-58 av. 54.6
EL. biblicus (4)
71-81 av. 75.8
(Dement’ev 72-78
av. 75.3
11-1 1.7 av. 1 1.3
9.3-10 av. 9.2)
1 9-20 av. 19.4
51-60 av. 55.1
1 940 Passer hispaniolensis transcaspicus
Males (37)
76-82 av. 79.2
(IH ’73-87
11-13 av. 11.9
from skiffl c. 1 6
19-22 av. 20.4
19-20
53-60 av. 56.2
57-62)
Females (20)
74-80 av. 7 6.9
(IH 73-82
11-12. 5av. 11.8
from skull c. 16
19-21.5 av. 2 0
19-20
52-59 av. 54.8
Males
1941 dilutus ( 1 6)
1 94 1 -44 Passer montanus sub spp. & ELs
71 -76 av. 73.1 9.8-1 1 .3 av. 10.5 17.5-20.2 av. 18.6
(Baker M/F 78-83 - 18-19
51-59av. 55.8
50-55)
1 942 malaccensis (11)
65-74 av. 70.6
(IH 67-76
10. 1- 11.5av. 10.7
from skull 11-14
17.4-19.5 av. 17.7
15-19
49-56 av. 53.2
52-57)
1 944 hepaticus (5)
63-70 av. 67.2
(IH 68-71
10-11. 1 av. 10. 58
17-18.7 av. 17.9
50-53 av. 51.4
50-54)
EL monianus ( 1 )
69
(Dement’ev 65-75
10.6
10-12)
20
55
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG . 2000
237
A CA TALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION
Table 1 (contd.)
MEASUREMENTS OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF BNHS
Wing (mm)
Bill (mm)
Tarsus (mm)
Tail (mm)
EL transcaucasicus ( 1 )
64 10.8
(Dement’ev 64-70)
17.5
46
Females
dilutus (9)
malaccensis (10)
70-74 av. 71.4
67-73 av. 69.5
(IH 66-74
9.9-10.6 av. 10.3
9.5-11. 2 av. 10.3
from skull 12-13
17.4-19.5 av. 18.4
17-18.5 av. 17.8
15-19
50-57 av. 54.2
52-55 av. 53.2
50-56)
hepaticus ( 1 )
67
11.1
18
50
1945 Passer pyrrhonotus
Males (11)
64-71 av. 67.7
(IH 67-70
9.1-10.2 av. 9.5
fromsk-ull 11-12
16.3-20av. 17.8
16-17
48- 54 av. 51
49- 55)
Females (5)
63-65 av. 64
(IH 63-65
9.5- 10 av. 9.7
from skull 11-12
16-1 7 av. 16.7
16-17
44-50 av. 47
48-49)
Male
1946 cinnamopieus (32)
1946-47 Passer rutilans subspp.
67-75 av. 71.06 9.5-1 1 .5 av. 10.7
(I H 68-82 from skull 12-14
16- 18.8 av. 17.4
17- 21
45.55 av. 49.5
46-56)
1 946 (a) Bhutan (9)
70-80 av. 73.1
10.3-1 1.8 av. 10.8
16.3-1 8.2 av. 17.2
45-56 av. 50.5
1947 intensier ( 1 )
71
(Baker 69-77
11.1
11-12)
18.5
48
Females
cinnamomeus (15)
65-71 av. 68.6
(IH 60-78
10.2-11.3 av. 10.6
from skull 12-14
16.5-1 8.8 av. 17.7
17-21
44-51 av. 47.9
46-53)
Bhutan (5)
66-74av. 69.6
10.5-11. 5 av. 10.9
17.5-19 av. 18
45-49 av. 47.2
Passer flaveolus EL
Males (5)
68-74 av. 69.8
(Baker 69-75
10. 1 -11.2 av. 10. 8
11-12
17.1-20av. 18.7
c. 17
48-54 av. 50.8
52-54)
Females (2)
67,68
10.3,10.9
17.5,17.7
48,49
Males
1 948 transfuga (14)
1 948-49 Petronia xanthocollis subspp.
77-86 av. 81.2 10.5-12 av. 1 1.3 15 - 19.5 av. 16.6
(IHM/F 80-86 froin skull 15-16 c. 15
48-55 av. 51.2
47-53)
1 949 xanthocollis (27)
71-86 av. 80.8
GH 77-89
1 1-13 av. 11.89
from skull 13-16
15- 16.5 av. 15.58
16- 18
46-54 av. 49.9
46-52)
Females
transfuga (6)
76-80 av, 78.8
1 1-12 av. 11.4
16-17.5 av. 16.6
48-52 av. 49.6
xanthocollis (16)
75-80 av. 77.1
(IH 76-85
11-12.5 av. 11.5
from skull 13-16
14-1 6 av. 15
16-18
44-50 av. 47.4
43-55
1 950 Petronia petronia intermedia
Males (2)
100,101
(IHM/F 98-104
13.5,14.3
from skull c. 18
18,18.5
18-19
54,56
57-60)
Female (1)
95
14
18
53
238
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
A CA TALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION
Table 1 (contd.)
MEASUREMENTS OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF BNHS
Wing (mm)
Bill (mm)
Tarsus (mm)
Tail (mm)
Petronia brachydactyla EL
Males (2)
91,97
11.5,12.2
18,18.5
43.52
(Dement’ev 90- 1 00)
Female (1)
95
14
18
53
(Dement’ev 86, 90)
1 952 Montifringilla adamsi adamsi
Males (3)
107,111(2)
12.4,12.5,12.7
20(2), 21
65,68,71
(IH 109-117
from skull. 16-17
21-22
66-75)
Female (1)
107
13.2
21.5
66
(IH 106-113
from skull 16-17
21-22
66-75)
1 955 Montifringilla blanfordi blanfordi
Female (1)
92
10.5
17.5
51
(IH M/F 90-97
c. 10-11
c. 19-20
54-56)
pale, almost like an albino.
Measurements on p. 238.
1949 Petronia xanthocollis xanthocollis
(Burton) (Ganges between Calcutta and Benares)
Indian yellowthroated sparrow
51: 27 males, 16 females, 8 unsexed.
2 Delhi, 1 Bulandshahr, U.P., 2 Bharatpur,
Rajasthan, 1 Nadiad, Kaira, 1 Bodeli, 1 Dabka,
Baroda, 1 Pandwa, 1 Malegaon, Surat Dangs, 1
Saugar, 1 Raipur, Melghat, Berar, 1 Golapally
Bastar, 1 Manthar, Narbada Valley, 3 Rita,
Murbad Road, Kalyan, 4 Bhiwandi, Thana dist.,
1 Poona, Deccan, 1 Karwar, 2 N. Kanara, 1
Kadra, Kanara, 2 Lingadhalli, 1 Murgimatta, 1
Talguppa, 1 Gamataghatta, 1 Sagar, Mysore, 1
Kuruvenulti, Travancore, 1 Madurai, 2 Gingee,
S. Arcot, 1 Redwells, Madras, 1 Maidapur,
Angul, 1 Daspalla State, 1 Tikerpara, Bangui
dist., 7 Barkot, 1 Badrama, Bamra, 1 Baud,
Orissa, 2 Baghownie, Tirhut, Bihar.
9 males collected in February and 5 in March
have their bills black, especially the lower
mandibles; the rest of the males were collected in
November, December and January, the bills are
brown except in one skin dated 12th January and
2 dated 26th January. In females, the bills are
brown, shoulder patch and yellow throat patch are
so pale as to go unnoticed. Out of the 8 unsexed,
7 are males by plumage and measurements.
Measurements on p. 238.
1950 Petronia petronia intermedia
Hartert (Gilgit). Rock sparrow. 3: 184
3: 2 males, 1 female.
1 Kidri , 2 Tigab , Nr. Kain, Persia.
Measurements on p. 238.
EL Petronia brachydactyla Bonaparte,
Western Arabia. Short-toed rock sparrow (desert
rock sparrow).
4: 2 males, 2 females.
2 Fatah , Tigris , 2 Charbar, Baluchistan.
These four birds were listed and kept with
the earlier species (Synopsis No.) 1950 in the
collection, smaller in size than the above, sandy
brown without streaks on the back or under
parts, yellow throat patch absent, rectrices
brown, with narrow white margins on outer
webs, turning into a white border on the
outermost rectrices. Contrary to the description
in the birds of the soviet union Vol 5, p 392,
the middle pair of rectrices lack the white patch
and the inner borders of the 3 outer rectrices
have white triangular markings in descending
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
239
A CA TALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION
order (outermost rectrix has largest marking).
Two pale brown wing bars formed by the tips
of upper and middle wing coverts. Male and
female similar in plumage (very inconspicuous,
cryptic colouring, which is probably why
this birds’ habits are little known and specimens
in collections not numerous; B.S.U. Vol. V, 39 1 ).
Measurements on p. 239.
1951 Montifringilla nivalis alpicola
(Pallas) Caucasus. Pallas’s snow finch.
nil
1952 Montifringilla adamsi adamsi
Adams Ladakh. Tibet snow finch 3:187
8: 3 males, 1 female, 4 unsexed.
1 Zgunglas, 1 Phobrang, Ladak, 2 Kioto,
1 Losar, Spiti, Kangradist., 2 Tingri, 1 Thungla,
S. Tibet.
Measurements on p. 239.
1953 Montifringilla taczanowskii
(Przevalski) (Tetunga and Kuku Nor Steppe)
Mandelli’s snow finch 3:188
nil
1954 Montifringilla ruficollis Blanford.
(Lachen Valley, N. Sikkim). Rednecked snow
finch. 3:189
2: 1 juvenile male, from Kyangma, Bakha
Plain, W. Thibet and another unsexed from
Phail, Tibet.
1955 Montifringilla blanfordi blanfordi
Hume (borders of Tibet to the north of native
Sikkim). Blanford’s snow finch 3:190
One female from Neypudmg above Punga,
Ladak.
Measurements on p. 239.
1956 Montifringilla davidiana potanini
(Sushkin). (Khara-djamaty, basin of Kobdo).
Pere David’s snow finch.
nil.
ACKNOW LEDG EM ENTS
I am indebted to Mr. Humayun Abdulali
for checking and refining most of the work
in this part. I am grateful to the Natural
History Museum (British Museum) at Tring,
especially to Dr. Mark Adams for a loan of 24
specimens of different subspecies of Passer
rutilans.
{To be continued)
240
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
PITFALL TRAP SAMPLING OF TROPICAL CARABIDS
(CARABIDAE : COLEOPTERA) — EVALUATION OF TRAPS, PRESERVATIVES
AND SAMPLING FREQUENCY1 2
S. Vennila2,3 and D. Rajagopal3
Key words: Carabids, sampling, pitfall trap, trap types,
preservatives, sampling frequency
Sampling ground beetles (Carabidae : Coleoptera) using pitfall traps was evaluated by comparing
combinations of three trap types and five preservatives in a 3x5 factorial randomised complete
block design over a period of four months for two sampling intervals namely, a week and a
fortnight. Analysis based on the capture efficiencies of different treatment combinations resulted
in the recommendation of glass jar pitfall traps (11x6 cm) with formalin (4%) or ethylene glycol
(2%) as preservative, with a fortnightly sampling frequency. Preservative efficiency and trap
recovery efficiency of traps in the two sampling experiments and the cost factor for using any one
trap and preservative combinations of fortnightly sampling in the sampling programme are
discussed.
Introduction
In recent ecological studies, carabids or
ground beetles have received increasing attention
owing to their frequent occurrence in all varieties
of habitats and economic importance in
agriculture (Saypulaeva 1986, Luff 1987). They
also serve as pedobiological monitors, indicating
habitat degradation (Luff et al. 1989). Hence,
an ecological research study on carabids as
potential indicators of environment and/or as
economic bioagents, needs the development of a
comprehensive, economical and environmentally
suitable system of sampling.
Pitfall trapping sampling method has been
found reliable to assess qualitative and
quantitative species composition of carabids
simultaneously in several habitats (Dennison and
Hodkinson 1984). Pitfall traps were preferred to
quadrats, as the latter has proven unserviceable
(Loreau 1984). Many workers, therefore, used
'Accepted August, 1999
2 Present Address: Scientist, Division of Crop Protection,
Central Institute for Cotton Research,
Post Box No. 2, Shankar Nagar 440 0 1 0, Maharashtra, India,
department of Entomology,
University of Agricultural Sciences,
Gandhi Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Bangalore 560 065,
Karnataka, India.
some form of pitfall trapping to monitor and
assess populations of carabids (Mitchell 1963,
Greenslade 1964, Sunderland 1975, Halsall and
Wratten 1988). The effectiveness of pitfall traps
reportedly depends on the material of
construction, presence of a preservative and its
chemical composition, number of traps and how
often the traps are checked (Gryuntal 1982). So,
as a prerequisite for sampling tropical carabids
to study their species diversity, the present study
attempts to evaluate the types of traps,
preservatives and sampling frequency.
Material and Methods
Two experiments namely, weekly and
fortnightly sampling experiments, each of
Factorial Randomised Complete Block Design
(FRCBD) with two replications each, were laid
out simultaneously in two adjacent areas of an
agroforest, each of 15,000 sq. m, to compare
three trap types: glass jar (11x6 cm), alu-
minium tumbler ( 1 1x6.5 cm) and plastic tumbler
(11x6 cm); and four preservatives: formalin
(4%), ethylene glycol (2%), salt solution (20%)
and detergent solution (2%). Traps without
preservatives (empty traps) were also tested,
hence there were 3x5 factorial combinations in
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY. SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
241
PITFALL TRAP SAMPLING OF TROPICAL CARA BIDS
two replications of each of the sampling
experiments.
Traps were set in the soil with their position
as per random allotment in FRCBD, with their
opening flush with the soil surface. Measured
quantities (50 ml) of preservatives were poured
as directed by the sampling plan. Traps were
checked once in three days to refill traps with
preservatives, if required. Sampling was carried
out for a period of four months with fifteen
weekly and seven fortnightly collections.
The total catches of carabids, irrespective
of species (measure of capture efficiency), for the
three trap types with five preservatives over two
replications were recorded for the two sampling
programs. Also, the number of specimens that
were well preserved (measure of preservative
efficiency), number of times each preservative
heeded to be replenished during the sampling
period (measure of cost and time efficiency), and
number of traps that could be recovered for reuse
at the end of the experimental period (measure
of trap recovery efficiency) were made for the
weekly and fortnightly experiments separately.
Statistical analysis
Weekly and fortnightly sampling
experiments of FRCBD were analysed separately
to answer three explicit questions: whether
carabid catches indicate significant differences
(a) among trap types (b) among the type of
preservatives and (c) for interactive effects
between trap types and preservatives.
Total number of carabids caught at the end
of the experiment from two sampling periods was
tested using student ‘t’ test. The efficiency of
preservatives in terms of number of carabid
specimens recovered for further handling and
efficiency of traps in terms of number of traps
reusable between two sampling experiments were
tested using chi square test. One way analysis of
variance was used to detect differences among
preservatives for frequency of replenishing.
Cost analysis for using any trap type with
any preservative was done, taking into account
the total number of traps used and total quantity
of preservatives used, for the fortnightly sampling
experiment.
Results
The analysis of variance (ANOVA) for
carabid catches of weekly and fortnightly
sampling experiments based on the FRCBD
analysis are shown in Tables 1 and 2, respectively.
Table 1
ANOVA FOR TOTAL WEEKLY CATCHES OF
CARABIDS
Source of
variation
Degree of
freedom
Sum of
squares
Mean
square
Computed
‘F’
Replication
1
5.63
5.63
0.287 NS
Treatment
14
1908.47
136.32
6.943**
Trap (T)
(2)
1048.67
524.33
26.710**
Preservative (P)
(4)
452.13
113.03
5.757**
(T)x(P)
(8)
408.27
51.03
2.590ns
Error
14
274.87
19.63
Total
29
2188.97
**: Significant at P< 0.01, NS: Not significant
Table 2
ANOVA FOR FORTNIGHTLY CATCHES OF CARABIDS
Source of
variation
Degree of
freedom
Sum of
squares
Mean
square
Computed
‘F’
Replication
1
192.53
192.53
10.67**
Treatment
14
2542.20
181.59
10.07**
Trap (T)
(2)
680.00
340.00
18.86**
Preservative (P)
(4)
1300.00
325.00
18.03**
(T)x(P)
(8)
562.20
70.28
3.89*
Error
14
252.47
18.03
Total
29
2987.20
**: Significant at P< 0.01, *: Significant at P < 0.05
While the main treatment effects, namely traps
and preservatives, showed significant differences
in both sampling experiments, their interaction
effect was significant only for the fortnightly
242
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2). AUG. 2000
PITFALL TRAP SAMPLING OF TROPICAL CARABIDS
sampling experiment. Capture efficiency was
significantly higher in glass trap and on par for
all preservatives in both the experiments (Table
3). For the fortnightly sampling experiment,
comparison of capture efficiencies among traps
for preservatives (Table 4) showed on par capture
when traps were left empty, and highest capture
for all preservatives when used with glass jar.
Comparison of capture efficiencies among
preservatives for different trap types (Table 5)
had shown no differences in carabid capture
when any preservative was used with aluminium
Table 3
CAPTURE EFFICIENCIES* FOR TRAPS AND
PRESERVATIVES OF WEEKLY AND FORTNIGHTLY
SAMPLING EXPERIMENTS
Treatment
comparison
Sampling experiment**
Weekly
Fortnightly
For traps
Glass jar
28.2a
23.6a
Aluminium tumbler
17.1b
12.6b
Plastic tumbler
14.6c
13.4b
For preservatives
Empty
12.3a
3.2a
Formalin
21.0b
21.7b
Ethylene glycol
22.7b
19.2b
Salt solution
22.7b
19.6b
Detergent solution
21.2b
19.0b
* Mean carabid catches over study period
** In a column, means followed by a common letter are not
significantly different at P < 0.05
and plastic traps. Glass traps with formalin as
preservative had the highest catch.
Comparison of carabid capture efficiencies
between sampling experiments for trap types
(Table 6) indicated significant differences
corresponding to empty traps alone, with catches
four times higher in weekly than those in
fortnightly sampling experiment. Preservative
efficiency varied between the experiments only
for inorganic preservatives, namely salt and
detergent solutions, with larger catches recorded
Table 4
COMPARATIVE EFFICIENCY OF TRAP TYPES WITH
DIFFERENT PRESERVATIVES
Preservative**
Trap type
Glass
jar
Aluminium
tumbler
Plastic
tumbler
Empty
2.5a
4.0a
3.0a
Formalin
36.0a
14.5c
15.5b
Ethylene glycol
22.5a
15.5c
19.5b
Salt solution
28.0a
14.5c
16.5b
Detergent solution
29.0a
14.5b
13.5c
* Mean carabid catches over study period
** In a row, means followed by a common letter are not
significantly different at P < 0.05
Table 5
COMPARATIVE EFFICIENCY OF PRESERVATIVES
WITH DIFFERENT TRAP TYPES
Preservative**
Trap type
Glass
jar
Aluminium
tumbler
Plastic
tumbler
Empty
2.5d
4.0b
3.0b
Formalin
36.0a
14.5a
15.5a
Ethylene glycol
22.5c
15.5a
19.5a
Salt solution
28.0bc
14.5a
16.5a
Detergent solution
29.0b
14.5a
13.5a
* Mean carabid catches over study peirod
** In a column, means followed by a common letter are not
significantly different at P < 0.05
in weekly sampling experiment (Table 7).
Frequency of replenishment was the least in
ethylene glycol and highest in formalin (Table 8).
Recovery of plastic traps alone was significantly
lower in weekly than in fortnightly sampling
experiment (Table 9). Glass type traps used with
any preservative (Table 10) in the fortnightly
sampling experiment were least expensive.
Discussion
Effect of type of traps and preservatives.
Significantly higher capture efficiency for glass
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
243
PITFALL TRAP SAMPLING OF TROPICAL CARA BIDS
Table 6
CAPTURE EFFICIENCIES* BETWEEN SAMPLING
EXPERIMENTS FOR TRAPS
Trap type
Sampling experiment
Test of
- significance
(t value)
Weekly
Fortnightly
Glass jar
31.75
28.88
1 ,099ns (n=8)
Aluminium tumbler 17.63
15.00
1 .132ns (n=8) *
Plastic tumbler
16.13
16.00
0.045ns (n=8)
Empty trap
12.33
3.17
6.087ns (n=8)
* Mean carabid captures over study period
NS: Not Significant, **: Significant at P<0.01
Table 7
PRESERVATIVE EFFICIENCIES BETWEEN SAMPLING
EXPERIMENTS
Preservative
Sampling experiment
Weekly Fortnightly
Test of
significance
(X2 value)
Formalin
92(126)
89(130)
0.942ns
Ethylene glycol
88 (136)
86(115)
0.259ns
Salt solution
76 (136)
59(118)
7.836**
Detergent solution
53 (127)
28(116)
15.908**
* Percentage of carabids recovered for further handling
Figures within parentheses are the total number of carabids
caught during the experiment
NS: Not Significant, **: Significant at P< 0.01
jar traps over aluminium and plastic traps from
both the weekly and fortnightly sampling
experiments revealed the superiority of glass jars
for sampling carabids. The effectiveness of glass
traps over polythene traps for carabid sampling
has been reported by Gryuntal (1982). Although
formalin has been reported to have an attractant
effect (Luff 1968), the present study did not show
difference in catches among preservatives.
Irrespective of trap types, empty traps (any trap
type without preservative) always registered
lower carabid catches. Catches were lower in
fortnightly than in weekly sampling experiment.
Lower capture efficiency of empty traps can be
explained, firstly by the general ability of smaller
carabids to climb out of traps; secondly, by the
devouring of smaller carabids by larger ones, and
Table 8
MEAN FREQUENCY OF REPLENISHMENT FOR
PRESERVATIVES
Preservative
Mean frequency of replenishment*
Formalin
22.5b
Ethylene glycol
12.0a
Salt solution
17.0ab
Detergent solution
18.3b
* Means followed by a common letter are not significantly
different at P< 0.05
Table 9
RECOVERY EFFICIENCY* FOR TRAPS BETWEEN
SAMPLING EXPERIMENTS
Trap type
Sampling experiment
fest of
significance
(X2 value)
Weekly
Fortnightly
Glass jar
19
18
0.360ns
Aluminium tumbler
17
16
0.173ns
Plastic tumbler
10
16
3.956*
* Number of traps recovered at the end of experiment out of 25
NS: Not Significant, **: Significant at P< 0.05
Table 10
EXPENDITURE FOR TRAP-PRESERVATIVE
COMBINATIONS IN FORNIGHTLY EXPERIMENT
Trap type
Glass
jar
Aluminium
tumbler
Plastic
tumbler
Formalin
34.01
83.90
38.11
Ethylene glycol
31.34
55.44
35.44
Salt solution
30.29
54.39
34.39
Detergent solution
30.27
54.37
34.37
* Figures denote the total expenditure (rupees) incurred during
the sampling experiment taking into account trap and
preservative life
thirdly, by the susceptibility of catches to
predation by other groups such as lizards, rodents
etc. The lesser efficiency of empty traps alone in
fortnightly than in weekly sampling experiment
suggests that increased time invigorates the above
three factors. Luff (1975) found that glass traps
could retain catches without the use of
244
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
PITFALL TRAP SAMPLING OF TROPICAL CARABIDS
preservatives better than metal and plastic traps.
The present study, however, finds that
preservatives are a must for trapping carabids in
the tropics.
All preservatives, whether organic (formalin,
ethylene glycol) or inorganic (salt, detergent
solutions) showed higher effectiveness when used
with glass jars. However, formalin used with glass
jars recorded highest capture efficiency, indicating
the supremacy of glass jars with formalin for
carabid sampling. Greater impediment to insect
movements on the glass surface, and the well
known fixative effect of formalin appear to be the
reasons for the greater efficiency of glass jars with
formalin for sampling carabids.
Effectiveness of preservatives: While
organic preservatives (formalin, ethylene glycol)
had not differed in efficiency expressed as the
number of carabid specimens recovered for
further handling, the inorganic preservatives
(salt, detergent solutions) had lesser catches of
carabids. This might be due to the fixative
properties of organic preservatives. It was
observed that a larger number of specimens
separated out had heads detached from their
bodies and an offensive smell, hampering the
separation process, from inorganic preservatives
in the fortnightly sampling experiment. This
indicates that biodegradation sets in at traps with
salt or detergent solutions with a long sampling
interval, and their unsuitability as preservatives
for more than a week’s sampling frequency.
The time factor analysis on preservatives
based on mean frequency of replenishing shows
that ethylene glycol and salt solution required
more frequent replenishment than formalin and
detergent solution. This is due to the differential
evaporation rate of preservatives tested. Adis
(1979) has reported lower evaporation rate of
Refer
Adis, J. (1979): Problems of interpreting arthropod
sampling with pitfall traps. Zool. Anz.. 202 : 177-184.
Dennison, D.F. & L.D. Hodkinson (1984): Structure of
ethylene glycol in pitfall traps.
Recovery efficiency of traps: Recovery of
a smaller number of plastic pitfall traps in weekly
sampling experiment than in the fortnightly
sampling experiment is attributed to the lesser
resistance offered by the traps to frequent
replacements. With glass jar and aluminium
tumbler traps, the loss of traps was negligible in
both experiments.
Sampling cost for trap and preservative
combinations: Expenditure incurred for the
fortnightly sampling experiment alone was
calculated, as the interaction effect of traps and
preservatives was significant for that sampling
frequency. It was seen that, for any preservative
used with glass jar, the costs are the least and
with aluminium trap the highest.
With the salt and detergent solutions
proving unsuitable among preservatives and
glass jar superior among trap types, cost benefit
analysis is valid only between the use of formalin
and ethylene glycol with glass jar traps. The
difference was small (Rs. 34 for glass jar with
formalin, and Rs. 31 for glass jar with ethylene
glycol) suggesting that choice can depend on
availability.
Overall perspective of the developed
sampling programme: On the basis of this study
the use of glass jar ( 1 1 x6 cm) traps with formalin
(4%) or ethylene glycol (2%) as preservative with
a sampling frequency of a fortnight is
recommended to be cost effective for studies of
distributional limits and to measure their
dynamic relations with the environment.
Acknowledgement
The first author thanks the Indian Council
of Agricultural Research for financial support.
NCES
the predatory beetle community in a woodland soil
ecosystem. III. Seasonal activity patterns as revealed
by pitfall trapping. Pedobiologia 26: 45-56.
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
245
PITFALL TRAP SAMPLING OF TROPICAL CARA BIDS
Greenslade, P.J.M. (1964): Pitfall trapping as a method
for studying population of Carabidae. J. Anim. Ecol.
33: 301-310.
Gryuntal, S.Y. (1982): Methods of estimating numbers
of beetles (Coleoptera : Carabidae). Ent. Rev. 61: 201-
205.
Halsall, N.B. &S.D. W ratten (1988): The efficiency of
pitfall trapping for polyphagous predatory Carabidae.
Ecol. Ent. 13: 293-299.
Loreau, M. (1984): Population density and biomass of
Carabidae (Coleoptera) in a forest community.
Pedobiologia 27: 269-278.
Luff, M.L. ( 1 968): Some effects of formalin on the numbers
of Coleoptera caught in pitfall traps. Ent. Mon. Mag.
1 04: 1247- 1249.
Luff, M.L. ( 1 975): Some features influencing the efficiency
of pitfall traps. Oecologia 19: 345-357.
Luff, M.L. (1987): Biology of polyphagous ground beetles
in agriculture. Agric. Zoo. Revs. 2: 237-278.
Luff, M.L., M.D. Eyre & S.P. Rushton (1989):
Classification and ordination of habitats of ground
beetles (Coleoptera : Carabidae) in northeast England.
J. Biogeogr. 16: 121-130.
Mitchell, B. (1963): Ecology of two carabid beetles
Bembidion lampros (Herbst) and Trechus
quadristriatus (Schrank). I. Life-cycle and feeding
behaviour. J. Anim. Ecol. 32: 289-299.
Saypulaeva, B.N. (1986): Peculiarities of local distribution
of geobiont beetles in Irganay hollow in the central
mountains of Daghestan (Coleoptera : Carabidae,
Scarabidae, Elateridae, Tenebrionidae). Ent. Rev. I:
155-165.
Sunderland, K.D. (1975): The diet of some predatory
arthropods in cereals fields. J. Appl. Ecol. 12: 501-515.
■ ■ ■
246
JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2). AUG. 2000
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
BARILIINE FISHES OF MANIPUR, INDIA, WITH THE DESCRIPTION
OF A NEW SPECIES: BARI LIUS LAIROKENSIS'
Laifrakpam Arunkumar3 and Hijam Tombi Singh* 2
( With one text-figure )
Key words: Barilius lairokensis sp. nov., Manipur
The systematic account of bariliine fishes of the genus Raiamas and Barilius hitherto known
from the state of Manipur, India, namely R. bola (Hamilton-Buchanan), R. guttatus (Day) and
B. barila (Ham.-Buch.), B. barna (Ham.-Buch.), B. bendelisis (Ham.-Buch.). B. dogarsinghi
Hora, B. gatensis (Valenciennes), B. tileo (Ham.-Buch.) and B. vagra (Ham.-Buch.) are given. A
new species, B. lairokensis has been described here. It resembles B. barila in its external
morphology, but differs from it in the depth of body, non-extended maxilla and predorsal scales.
Introduction
Manipur is a hill-bound state in
northeastern India. The drainage system of this
state may be grouped into three, namely the
Barak, the Manipur and the Yu river systems.
The Barak river system drains the western sides
of this state and finally joins the Brahmaputra
river. Both, the Manipur river system which
drains the central valley and the Yu river system
which drains the major hilly eastern sides of this
state, directly join the Chindwin river of
Myanmar. Each of the three river systems has
its own distinctive ichthyofauna.
The bariliine fishes of the genera Raiamas
and Barilius are widely distributed throughout
India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Shan State,
Thailand, China, Cambodia (Khmer Republic),
Korea, Honshu Island of Japan, Amur basin,
Africa, Malay Peninsula and Southeast Asian
Archipelago.
The description of Barilius dogarsinghi by
Hora (1921) and the collection of Barilius
guttatus by Menon ( 1 952) are the most important
'Accepted October, 1 997
department of Life Science,
Manipur University, Canchipur 795 003, Manipur, India.
3Present Address: Department of Zoology,
Mayai Lambi College, Yumnam Huidrom,
Manipur 795 008, India.
records of bariliine fishes in Manipur. Menon
(1954, 1974), Singh and Tombi Singh (1985)
and Tombi Singh (1992) did not give a precise
picture of the localities and distribution of these
fishes in Manipur.
A detailed survey of the ichthyofauna of
the state was carried out. Fifteen specimens of
Barilius were collected from the Yu drainage
system, and when compared with known species
of this genus, appeared to be hitherto
undescribed. These specimens are described in
this communication as a new species, Barilius
lairokensis.
Material and Methods
Fishes were collected from hill streams of
the three drainage systems of Manipur, namely
the Barak river, the Manipur river and the Yu
river, with the help of local fishermen using: by-
side tracking, dewatering shallow portions of the
streams, with nets, hook and line. Identification
of the species was done with reference to Barman
( 1 985), Day ( 1 989), Talwar and Jhingran (1991)
and Howes (1980, 1983). The meristic and
morphometric measurements were made
following standard techniques described by
Jayaram (1981), Barman (1985), Menon (1987)
and Talwar and Jhingran (1991). The specimens
are deposited in the Manipur University Museum
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2). AUG. 2000
247
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
of Fishes (MUMF). Uncatalogued bariliine fishes
of MUMF were also observed.
Results
Systematic accounts of the bariliine fishes
of Manipur of the genus Raiamas (2 species),
Barilius (7 species) and a new species, Barilius
Iciirokensis, along with their distribution in
Manipur are given below:
Raiamas bola (Ham.-Buch.)
Cyprinus bola Ham.-Buch. 1822, Fish.
Ganges ., 274, 385 (type locality: Brahmaputra
river).
Material: 5 exs. Uncat. MUMF. 2 from
Barak river at Barak Bridge, 169-248 mm total
length, 5.ix.l995. Uncat. MUMF. 3 from Chakpi
stream at Serou, 196-248 mm total length,
19.vi.1996. 1 Uncat. MUMF. 142 mm total
length, coll. R. Singh.
Local name: Ngawa
Distribution: Manipur: Barak river
system, Manipur river system.
Remarks: R. bola is an endangered fish
(Menon 1990). Kulkami (1992) reported that it
was presently rather rare in its natural habitat
and may become extinct.
Raiamas guttatus (Day)
Opsarius guttatus Day, 1889, Proc. Zool.
Soc. Lond ., 620 (type locality: Irrawady river,
from Prome to Mandalay, Burma).
Material: 5 exs. Uncat. MUMF. 2 from
Sekmai stream, Pallel, 50-165 mm total length.
3 from Chakpikarong, 162-200 mm total length,
14.x. 1981, coll. W.V., 2 exs. Uncat. MUMF from
Imphal river at Khongnangfeidekpi, 175-182
mm total length, 6.iv.l989, coll. L.A., 2 exs.
Uncat. MUMF. 1 from Lokchao river and 1 from
Moreh Bazar, 192-212 mm total length,
17.x. 1992, coll. L.A.
Local name: Ngawa-thangong.
Distribution: Manipur: Manipur river
system, Yu river system.
Remarks: Largest and tastiest bariliine
fish in Manipur. It is available in the central
valley of Manipur, exhibiting upward migration
from the Chindwin river of Myanmar.
Barilius barila (Ham.-Buch.)
Cyprinus barila Ham.-Buch. 1822, Fish
Ganges ., 267, 384 (type locality: Northern
Bengal).
Material: 9 exs. Uncat MUMF. 6 from
Makru river, 93-98 mm total length, 3 from Taret
stream, 93-102 mm total length, 24.ii.1985, coll.
M.G. Sharma., 3 exs. Uncat. MUMF, from
Imphal river at Kangpokpi, 97-99 mm total
length, 7.vii.l989, coll. L.A., 2 exs. Uncat.
MUMF, from Thoubal river at Yairipok, 94-163
mm total length, 15.vii.1989, coll. L.A.
Local name: ‘Ngawa’ in Meitei / Manipuri
language, ‘Bakba’ in Maring Naga language.
Distribution: Manipur: Barak river
system, Manipur river system and Yu river
system.
Remark: Mukerji (1934) discussed the
conspecific relations of B. barnoides and
B. barila.
Barilius barna (Ham.-Buch.)
Cyprinus barna Ham.-Buch. 1822, Fish
Ganges ., 268, 384. (type locality: Yamuna river,
Brahmaputra river).
Material: 18 exs. Uncat. MUMF. 3 from
Chakpi stream, 120-122 mm total length,
2.viii. 1985, 6 from Makru river, 121-124 mm
total length, 1 5.ii. 1 986, 9 from Litan stream,
120-125 mm total length, 7.vi.l986, coll. M.G.
Sharma., 3, exs. Uncat. MUMF, from Irang river,
122-23 mm total length. 2 1 .iii. 1987, coll. R.
Singh., 1 ex. Uncat MUMF, from Taret river
95 mm total length, 22.x. 1992, coll. L.A.
248
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2). AUG. 2000
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Local name: Ngawa
Distribution: Manipur: Barak river
system, Manipur river system and Yu river
system.
Remark: Sexual dimorphism of this
species was reported by Mukerji (1934).
B.jayarami is the synonym of B. barna (Talwar
and Jhingran, 1991).
Barilius bendelesis (Ham.-Buch.)
Cyprinus bendelisis Ham.-Buch. 1807,
Journey in Mysore, 345, 32, (type locality:
Vedawati stream, head waters of Krishna river
near Herium, Mysore).
Material: 1 1 exs. Uncat. MUMF, from
Barak river, 71.5-125 mm total length, 12.i. 1985,
coll. M.G. Sharma, 1 ex. Uncat. MUMF, from
Barak river at Duifain stream, southern side of
Zhiliad lake, 32 mm total length, 8.ii. 1997, coll.
L.A. and Tombi Singh.
Local name: Ngawa/Ngawa-phurithungbi.
Distribution: Manipur: Barak river system
- Senapati stream at Karong, Leimatak river,
Irang river, Makru river, Barak river at Nungba,
Zhiliadjang, Bangaijang, Keimai.
Remarks: Its distribution in Manipur is
restricted to Barak river system. Talwar and
Jhingran (1991) synonymised B. howesi with
B. bendelisis.
Barilius dogarsinghi Hora
Barilius dogarsinghi Hora, 1921, Rec. Ind.
Mus ., 191, 3 (type locality: Etok stream near
Chandrakhong and Sekmai stream near Pallel,
Manipur).
Material: 15 exs. Uncat. MUMF, 14 from
Chakpi stream, Mombi, 50-105 mm total length,
1 6. ix. 1981, 1 from Sekmai stream, Pallel,
16. v. 1981 (Condition bad), coll. W.V., 14 exs.
Uncat. MUMF, 10 from Taret stream, 50-95 mm
total length. 17.x. 1992, 4 from Lokchao stream,
1 00- 1 1 5 mm total length. 1 5 .xii. 1 995, coll. L.A.
Local name: Ngawa / Ngawa-apakpi.
Distribution: Manipur: Manipur river
system - Thoubal river at Yairipok. Yu river
system: Tarest stream at Saibol, Lokchao river
at Lokchao, Lairok Maru.
Barilius gatensis (Valenciennes)
Leuciscus gatensis Valenciennes, 1844,
Hist. nat. poiss., 309, 503. (type locality:
peninsular India).
Material: 4 exs. Uncat. MUMF, from
Chakpi stream, Chakpikarong, 90-123 mm total
length, 14.x. 1981, coll. W.V., 1 ex. Uncat.
MUMF from Imphal river at
Khongnangfeidekpi, 85 mm total length,
5.viii.l988, coll. L.A.
Local name: Ngawa.
Distribution: Manipur: Manipur river
system.
Barilius tileo (Ham.-Buch.)
Cyprinus tileo Ham.-Buch. 1822, Fish.
Ganges ., 276, 385 (type locality: Kosi river, Uttar
Pradesh).
Material: 2 exs. Uncat. MUMF, from Jiri
river at Jiri, 150-175 mm total length, 2.ii. 1 99 1 ,
coll. R. Singh.
Local name: Ngawa.
Distribution: Manipur: Barak river
system.
Barilius vagra (Ham.-Buch.)
Cyprinus vagra Ham.-Buch. 1822, Fish
Ganges , 269, 385 (type locality: Ganges river at
Patna).
Material: 2 exs. Uncat. MUMF, from
Imphal river at Motbung, 95-106 mm total
length, 16. vi. 1993, coll. L.A., 1 ex. Uncat.
MUMF, from Jiri river at Jiribam. 97 mm total
length, 21.vii.1994, coll. R. Singh.
Local name: Ngawa.
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
249
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Distribution: Manipur: Barak river
system, Manipur river system - Sanahal
Lokchao, Litan stream at Litan, Thoubal river
at Yairipok.
Barilius lairokensis sp. nov.
(Fig. 1)
Fig. 1 : Barilius lairokensis sp. nov.
MUMF 3700/1 A, Holotype, 87 mm, SL,
Lairok Maru. Stream of the Yu drainage system.
Material: 15 exs. Holotype-MUMF 3700/
1A, TL 110 mm, SL 87 mm, from Lairok Maru,
Moreh, Chandel district, Manipur, 17.x. 1992.
Coll. Laifrakpam Arunkumar. Paratypes-MUMF
3700/14A, TL 106 mm, SL 81-82 mm, from
Moreh Bazar, Moreh, Chandel district, Manipur,
17.x. 1992, Coll. L.A.
Local name: Ngawa.
Diagnosis: A Barilius having the
combination of following distinct characters:
14 to 16 dark lateral bands. Predorsal scales 21;
lateral line scales 44, lateral line transverse
9. 5/3. 5; 2 pairs of barbels; depth of body 25.97
to 29.94; 19.84 to 23.64; and length of head at
the end of lateral operculum 25.31 to 25.97;
19.84 to 20.00 in the percentage of standard
length and total length respectively. Height
of caudal peduncle 56.49 to 64.51 in its length.
Maxilla just reaches the anterior margin of
orbit.
Description: Br. 3 to 4, D. ii. 8, P. I. 13, V.
I. 8, A ii. 11, C. 19. Body shallow, laterally
compressed, mouth moderate, rostral and
maxillary barbels short. Tip of snout and lower
jaw poorly tuberculated. Dorsal fin placed
entirely in advance of anal fin. Pectoral fin is
less than the length of head at the lateral end of
operculum. Caudal fin forked, lower lobe longer
than the upper lobe. Scales moderate. Lateral line
downwardly curved.
Proportional measurements of holotype
and paratypes (in parentheses): Length of head
of occiput 14.55 (13.21 to 14.16) in the
percentage of total length and 18.83 (17.30 to
18.31) in the percentage of standard length.
Predorsal length 56.49 (57.47 to 58.13),
prepelvic length 52.91 (50.76 to 52.63), preanal
length 75.18 (71.94 to 74.62), length of dorsal
fin 19.56 (19.53 to 19.76), length of pectoral
fin 19.56 (20.74 to 21.00), length of pelvic fin
13.79 (13.42 to 13.58), length of anal fin 14.94
(13.09 to 15.30), length of upper caudal fin 22.98
(23.20 to 24. 1 7), length of lower caudal fin 26.45
(25.31 to 28.86), width of body at dorsal fin
origin 12.65 (10.97 to 1 1.1 1) and width of body
at anal fin origin 9.19 (8.53 to 8.64) in the
percentage of standard length respectively.
Length of head at occiput 72.99 (69.66 to 7 1 .42),
length of snout 3 1 .84 (28.57 to 32.14), diameter
of eye 27.32 (26.80 to 27.42), interorbital
distance 27.32 (27.92 to 33.33), length of
pectoral fin 77.5 1 (76.92 to 8 1 .30), depth of head
at occiput 81.96 (79.42 to 79.33), width of head
at nares 27.32 (23.80 to 28.57), width of head
at neck 45.45 (42.91 to 47.51), width of mouth
31.84 (29.80 to 32.57), length of rostral barbel
9.09 (8.76 to 9.52), and length of maxillary
barbel 13.64 (14.76 to 15.52) in the percentage
of length of head at the end of lateral operculum
respectively. Distance from pelvic to anal
opening 95.23 (88.49 to 95.23) in the percen-
tage of distance between pelvic and anal fin
origin.
Colour: Dorsal fin blackish. Tip of caudal
fin black and of other fins pale white with no
markings. Dorsal greenish-brown. Whitish
ventrally. Lateral bands do not touch lateral line.
Two black spots are present in the back of caudal
peduncle in mature specimens.
250
JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2). AUG. 2000
NE W DESCRIPTIONS
Remarks: Barilius lairokensis sp. nov.
differs from B. barila in having greater depth of
body (25.97% to 29.94% vs. 20.83% to 21.73%
in standard length), fewer predorsal scales (21
vs. 22), extension of maxilla (just reaching vs.
extends to below anterior third of orbit) and
extension of lateral bands (not reaching vs.
reaching lateral line).
Etymology: The specific name of the fish
is derived from the type locality Lairok Maru
stream.
Discussion
Hora (1921) doubted the inclusion of
B. dogarsinghi in the present genus Barilius
because of the absence of the symphyseal knob
in the lower jaw. Singh and Tombi Singh (1985)
wanted to create a subgenus for B. dogarsinghi.
B. guttatus was at first regarded as a new record
from India (Singh and Tombi Singh 1985).
Tombi Singh (1992) recorded B. tileo as a new
record from Manipur.
The bariliine fishes of Manipur may be
divided into two main genera, viz., Raiamas and
Refer
Barman, R.P. ( 1 985): On a new Cyprinid fish of the genus
Barilius Hamilton (Pisces; Cyprinidae) from Arunachal
Pradesh, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82(1): 170-
174.
Day, F. (1889): The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon
and Burma. Fishes 1 : xx+548. Taylor & Francis, London.
Hamilton-Buchanan, F. ( 1 822): An account of the fishes
found in the river Ganges and its branches. Edinburgh
& London. Pp. vii + 405, pis. 39.
Hora, S.L. (1921): Fish and fisheries of Manipur with some
observations on those of Naga Hills. Rec. Ind. Mus.
22(3): 165-214.
Howes, G.J. (1980): The anatomy, phylogeny and
classification of bariliine cyprinid fishes. Bull. Brit.
Mus. nat. Hist. (Zool.) 37(3): 129-198.
Howes, G.J. ( 1 983): Additional notes on bariliine Cyprinid
fishes. Bull. Brit. Mus. nat. Hist. (Zool.) 45(2):
95-101.
Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The Freshwater fishes of India,
Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka — A
Handbook. Govt, of India. Ed. Director, Zoological
Barilius. The genus Barilius of Manipur may
also be further divided into two groups, namely
barila group and gatensis group according to
the number of barbels, development of tubercles,
short or long jaws and depth of body. B. barna,
B. gatensis and B. tileo belong to the gatensis
group, while B. barila, B. bendelisis,
B. dogarsinghi, B. vagra and B. lairokensis sp.
nov. belong to the barila group.
Raiamas guttatus is found in the Manipur
river system and the Yu river system only of
Manipur. B. bendelisis , B. gatensis and
B. lairokensis sp. nov. are the important
distinctive bariliine fishes distributed in the
three different river systems of Manipur, namely
Barak river, Manipur river and Yu river
respectively.
Acknowledgements
We thank Drs. G.J. Howes (BMNH),
Maurice Kottelat (Switzerland), Peter K.L. Ng
(ZRC), and W. Vishwanath (MU) for their warm
encouragement and valuable reprints.
ENCES
Survey of India, Calcutta. Pp. xxii + 475, pis. XIII.
Kulkarni, C.V. (1992): On the endangered Indian trout
Barilius bola (Ham.). J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 89(3):
277-281.
Menon, A.G.K. (1954): Further observation on the fish
fauna of the Manipur State. Rec. Ind. Mus. 52(1):
21-26.
Menon, A.G.K. (1974): A checklist of fishes of the
Himalayan and Indo-Gangetic plains. Inland Fisheries
Society of India. Special Publication. 1. 136.
Menon, A.G.K. (1987): The Fauna of India and the
adjacent countries. Pisces. IV. Teleostei-Cobitoidea. Part
1 . Homalopteridae. Government of India. Ed: Director,
Zoological Survey of India. Pp. x + 259, pis. XVI.
Menon, A.G.K. ( 1 990): Conservation of the ichthyofauna
of India. In: Conservation and Management of Inland
capture fisheries resources of India. Ed: A.G. Jhingran
& V.V, Sugunam. Inland Fisheries Society in India, pp.
25-33.
Menon, M.A.S. (1952): On a collection of fish from
Manipur, Assam. Rec. Ind. Mus. 50: 265-270.
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
251
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Mukerjj, D.D. (1934): Report on Burmese fishes collected
by Lt. Col. B.W. Burton from the tributary streams of
the Mali-Hka River of the Myitkyina district (upper
Burma). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 37(1): 38-80.
Singh, W. V. & H. Tombi Singh ( 1 985): On a collection of
fishes from Tengnoupal District of Manipur will some
new records. Inti J. Acad. (Proc. V. AISI); 6: 85-90.
Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of
India and adjacent countries. 1. Oxford & IBH
Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. Pp. xix + 542.
Tombi Singh, H. (1992): Ecobiology of hill stream fishes
of Manipur with special reference to culturable
possibilities. Final Technical Report, D.S.T.E., Govt,
of Manipur. Pp. 50.
■ ■ ■
252
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
TWO NEW SPECIES OF COPIDOGNATHUS (HALACARIDAE : ACARI)
FROM KERALA1
Tapas Chatterjee2
{ With seventeen text-figures)
Key words: Halacaridae, Acari, Copidognathus , new species, Kerala
Two new species of Halacaridae (Acari), Copidognathus keralensis and C. balakrishnani are
reported here from Kovalam coast and Cochin backwaters respectively. Both species were
collected among phytal samples.
Introduction
Four species of Halacaridae, namely
Copidognathus sideus Bartsch, Arhodeoporus
bonairensis Viets,- Rhombognathus papuensis
Bartsch, and R. scutulatus Bartsch, have been
reported by me from Kerala (Chatterjee and
Sarma 1993, Sarma and Chatterjee 1993,
Chatterjee 1995)
In the present communication, two new
species of the genus Copidognathus are reported
here from Kerala.
Abbreviations used in the text: AD-
anterodorsal plate. AE- anterior epimeral plate,
OC- Ocular plate, PD- Posterodorsal plate, PE-
Posterior epimeral plate, GA- Genitoanal plate,
GO- Genital opening, PGS- Perigenital seta,
SGS- Subgenital seta, PAS- Parambulacral seta,
EP I- Epimeral process I.
Copidognathus keralensis sp. nov.
(Figs. 1-9)
Locality: Males and females are
encountered among different algae from
Kovalam beach, Kerala.
Type: Holotype (<?), allotype (9) will be
deposited in the National Pusa Collection,
Entomology Division, IARI, New Delhi.
'Accepted November, 1997
2Indian School of Learning,
l.S.M. Annexe, Dhanbad 826 004,
Bihar, India.
Etymology: Named after the type locality
Kerala.
Description: male: The idiosomal length
of males ranged between 200 and 240 pm.
All dorsal plates are separate (Fig. 1). AD
bears an inverted funnel-shaped areola (Fig. 3).
The dSj is located at the base of the stem of
inverted funnel and ds2 on anteromedian margin
of OC. Two distinct corneae are present on OC
anteriorly. A few rosette pores present between
the two corneae. OC is caudiform posteriorly
and extends halfway between the insertion of
legs III and IV. PD bears two costae which are
two pores wide. The ds3, ds4and ds5 are located
on the anterior, middle and posterior areas of
PD respectively.
All ventral plates are separate (Fig. 2). AE
does not bear any areolae. AE with 3 setae. EP I
moderately developed and blunt anteriorly. EP I
coxal in origin. PE bears 3 ventral and 1 dorsal
seta besides 2 ventral areolae, made up of rosette
pores located in the anterior and posterior
regions. GA with paragenital areolae made up
of rosette pores. GO is guarded by a pair of
sclerites. Three pairs of SGS are present in GO
(one anteriorly and two posteriorly). 8-10 pairs
of PGS are present.
Rostrum extends more than 2/3 of the length
of palpal femur. Gnathosoma bears areolae made
up of rosette pores ventrolaterally. Dorsal portion
of gnathosoma is panelled. A pair of proto-, deuto,
trito- and basirostral setae are present on
gnathosoma. Palp 4-segmented (Fig. 4). Palpal
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
253
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
1. idiosoma dorsal (tf); 2. idiosoma ventral (tf); 3. magnified view of AD; 4. gnathosoma; 5. GA of 9;
6. leg I; 7. leg II; 8. leg III (Basifemur-tarsus); 9. leg IV (Telofemur-tarsus).
254
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NEW DESCRIPTIONS
trochanter and patella without setae, palpal femur
with one dorsal seta. Palpal tibiotarsus bears 3 setae
basally and a singlet eupathidia distally.
Chaetotaxy of legs I-IV is as follows:
Trochanter
1-1-1-0,
Basifemur
2-2-2-2,
Telofemur
5-5-2-2,
Patella
4-4-3-3,
Tibia
7-7-5-5.
Chaetotaxy of tarsus is discussed in the
text.
Telofemora III and IV devoid of any ventral
setae (Figs. 8, 9), Tibiae I and II with three ventral
and four dorsal setae. Tarsus I with 3 dorsal long
setae, 1 solenidion, 1 profamulus, 3 ventral setae
(one filiform basally and two singlet eupathidia
distally) and 4 PAS (two eupathidia doublets)
(Fig. 6). Tarsus II bears 3 dorsal long setae, 1
solenidion and 2 PAS (two singlet eupathidia)
and no ventral setae (Fig. 7).
female: The idiosomal length of females
ranged between 220 pm and 240 pm. Female
resembles the male except for genitoanal region.
Three pairs of PGS and a pair of SGS are present
(Fig. 5). Ovipositor is small.
Discussion: The present species shares
many characters of Copidognathus oculatus
group of Bartsch (1977).
“A median quadrangular area on the AD,
long OC, 2 costae with rosette pores, well
developed epimeral process, in females ovipositor
surpassing the foramen of the GO. In males, PGS
arranged in a corona close to the genital foramen,
with a small knob posterior to GO and only three
pairs of SGS present, pectinate setae present on
all tibiae” (Bartsch 1984) distinguishes the
oculatus group.
C. keralensis also appears to be akin to the
key group 5200 of Newell (1984) due to presence
of a well developed EP I, coxal in origin; ds2 on
the anterior margin of OC (in both sexes), a pair
of basirostral setae, telofemorae III and IV devoid
of ventral setae, and parallel striae present in
the membranous area between AD and PD.
Considering these attributes, it is possible to
assign all the species of oculatus group to the
key group 5200 but only a few species of the key
group 5200 can be assigned to the oculatus
group, since the key group is an artificial cluster
of several unrelated heterogenous species whose
characters do not match exactly with the
homogenous and natural cluster ‘ oculatus group’.
C. keralensis sp. nov. differs from all the
species of oculatus group and those of key group
5200 in the presence of an inverted funnel-shaped
areola of AD. C. oculatus , C. ypsilophorus and
C. modestus have more similarities with
C. keralensis but differ in the shape of posterior
areolae of AD. In C. ypsilophorus , the inverted
Y-shaped areola of AD is deeply concave at its
posterior margin and further from posterior
margin of AD. In C. keralensis , the posterior
margin of the inverted funnel-shaped areola is
relatively shallower and nearer the posterior
margin of AD. The costae of PD are two rosette
pores wide in C. keralensis , one rosette pore wide
in C. modestus and 5-7 pores wide in
C. ypsilophorus. Further, paracostae are absent
in C. keralensis , but present in C. ypsilophorus.
Copidognathus balakrishnani sp. nov.
(Figs. 10-17)
Locality: Male and female specimens were
encountered among Enteromorpha sp. from
Cochin backwaters, Kerala.
Type: Holotype (d) will be deposited in
National Pusa Collection, Entomology Division,
IARI, New Delhi.
Etymology: Named after Dr. N. Balaknshnan
Nair, Department of Aquatic Biology and
Fisheries, University of Kerala.
Description: male: Idiosomal length of
males ranged between 290 pm and 400 pm. All
dorsal plates are separate (Fig. 10). AD with an
anterior and two posterior (pyriform to circular)
faint areolae made up of porose panels. The ds,
located anterior to the posterior areolae of AD.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
255
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Figs. 10-1 3: Copidognathus balakrishnani sp. nov.
10. idiosoma dorsal (c?); 1 1. gnathosoma; 12. GA of 9; 13. idiosoma ventral (d1).
256
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NEW DESCRIPTIONS
The ds2 are placed at the anteromedian part of
OC. The OC with two corneae without any
areolae, but completely sculptured with panels.
PD sculptured with reticulate panel having 4
longitudinal costae made up of porose panels.
The ds3, ds4 and ds5 are on the anterior, middle
and posterior areas of PD respectively. A pair of
adanal setae are present on anal papillae.
All ventral plates are separated by cuticular
membranous areas (Fig. 13). Ventral plates
without any areolae but sculptured with panels.
AE bears 3 pairs of setae and PE bears 3 ventral
and 1 dorsal setae. Eight to ten PGS are on each
side of the GO. The GO is guarded by a pair of
sclerites which bear 4 pairs of SGS. Paragenital
areolae are absent but anal papillae are present.
Base of gnathosoma considerably broad
(Fig. 11). Rostrum is short and stout, reaching the
base of palpal tibiotarsus. A pair of proto-,
deuto-, trito-, and basirostral setae are present on
gnathosoma. Palp considerably small and 4-
segmented, palpal trochanter and patella without
any setae. Palpal femur with one dorsal seta and
palpal tibiotarsus with three basal setae and distal
eupathidia.
The chaetotaxy of legs I-IV is as follows:
Trochanter
1-1-1-0,
Basifemur
2-2-2-2,
Telofemur
5-5-2-2,
Patella
4-4-3-3,
Tibia
7-7-5-5.
The chaetotaxy of tarsus is discussed in
the text.
All segments of all legs bear pores.
Trochanter III clavate and devoid of
posterodorsal spine. Telofemorae III and IV
devoid of ventral setae (Fig. 16, 17).Tibiae I and
II bear one hair-like slender seta and two stout
robust pectinate setae ventrally, besides 4 dorsal
setae (Fig. 14, 15). Tibiae III and IV bear 3
ventral setae (two slender and one stout, robust
with pecten) and two dorsal setae.
Tarsus I bears 3 dorsal long setae, 1
solenidion, distal to solenidion 1 profamulus, 3
ventral setae (one basal filiform seta and two
distal singlet eupathidia) and 4 PAS (two doublet
eupathidia). Tarsus II bears 3 dorsal long setae,
1 solenidion, 2 singlet eupathidia (PAS) and no
ventral setae. Tarsus III bears 3 dorsal fossary
setae, 1 proximodorsal seta and 2 PAS. Tarsus
IV with 3 dorsal fossary setae and 2 PAS.
All legs with two lateral claws and a
bidentate median claw. Lateral claws are smooth
ventrally.
female: Idiosomal length of females
ranged between 300 pm and 480 pm. Female
closely resembles the male except for genitoanal
region. The cuticular membranous areas present
on the dorsal and ventral sides of female are
broader than in male. The width of the cuticular
membrane is variable in different specimens.
Three PGS are present on each side of the GO
(Fig. 12). GO is guarded by a pair of sclerites
bearing one pair of SGS. Ovipositor is small.
Discussion
The species can be aligned with Newell’s
key group 7700 (Newell 1984) as the specimen
at hand has the following characters:
X, OC: OC, PD: PD, 1:1, Para (i.e. EP I
absent, ds2 on OC in both sexes, ds3 on PD in
both sexes, basirostral setae 1 pair in both
male and female, striae between AD and PD
parallel).
While the present species falls in with the
key group 7700, it differs from all other species
of that group in the following formula (developed
following Newell 1984):
X, 2: Cir, nor, trion 4:3, X, 2:2, 8-10, 0:0.
(i.e. X = neither pore nor swelling is present,
2 posterior areolae on AD circular to pear-
shaped in outline, anal papilla in male normal
in form, OC triangular, dorsal seta of leg III and
IV with 4 and 3 respectively, X = no postgenital
papilla present, SGS in male 2:2. PGS in male
8-10 pairs, ventral setae of telofemora III-IV are
0:0).
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
257
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Figs. 14-1 7: Copidognathus balcikrishnani sp. nov.
14. leg I (Basifemur-tarsus); 15. leg II (Basifemur-tarsus); 16. leg III (Basifemur-tarsus); 17. leg IV.
258
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2). AUG. 2000
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
The specimens under dicussion cannot be
identified satisfactorily with any of the described
species of the genus. The striking features like
faint areolae on AD and 4 costae made up of
porose panels, short and stout gnathosoma with
a small rostrum and palp, tibiae I and II with 3
ventral setae (of which one is hair-like, slender,
and the other two pectinate, robust), tarsi III and
IV with 4:3 dorsal fossary setae render the
Refer
Bartsch, I. (1977): Zur oculcitus und gibbus - Gruppe
der Gattung Copidognathus (Halacaridae, Acari), Ent.
Mitt. Zool. Mus. Hamburg 6(97): 1-12.
Bartsch, I. (1984): New species of the Genus
Copidognathus (Halacaridae) from the Caribbean
region. Stud. Fauna Curacao 65: 1-14.
Chatterjee, T. (1995): Record of three species of
Rhombognathus (Halacaridae : Acari) from Indian Ocean
Region. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(2): 282-286.
Chatterjee, T. & A.L.N. Sarma (1993): Occurrence of
specimens distinct and are treated as new to
science.
AcKOWLEDG EM ENTS
I thank Mr. T. Thanukrishnan, Smt.
Durgadevi Choudhury, Vivekananda Vidya-
mandir, Chennai for his help and co-operation
during collections at Kerala.
• N C E S
Copidognathus sideus Bartsch 1982 (Halacaridae :
Acari) from Indian Ocean J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
90(2): 304-308.
Sarma, A.L.N. & T. Chatterjee (1993): Occurrence of
Arhodeoporus bonairensis (Viets 1936) (Halacaridae:
Acari) from Indian Ocean with zoogeographical
remarks on genus Arhodeoporus Newell. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 90(3): 417-422.
Newell, I.M. (1984): Antarctic Halacaroidea. Antarct. Res
Ser. 40: 1-284.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
259
MONELATA COMPLETUS , A NEW SPECIES OF DIAPRIIDAE (HYMENOPTERA •
PROCTOTRUPOIDEA) FROM INDIA1
K. Rajmohana2 and T.C. Narendran3
( With four text-figures)
Key words: New species, Monelata completus , Diapriidae, India
A new species of Diapriidae, namely Monelata completus is described from India.
Introduction
Proctotrupoidea represent one of the
important superfamilies of parasitic Hymenop-
tera, but very little work has been done on the
systematics of these insects. In the course of our
investigation on the Proctotrupoidea of the
Oriental Region (Rajmohana and Narendran
1996), we came across a new species of Monelata
Foerster from Calicut, which is described below.
At present only one species, Monelata
incisipennis Huggert 1982, is known from India
as well as from the Oriental Region.
Abbreviations used: AV - Anterior view;
ABL - Length of Abdomen; ABW - Width of
abdomen; DV - Dorsal view; FI -FI 1 - Flagellar
segments; FWB - Forewing width; FWL -
Forewing length; HL - Length of head; HB -
Width of head; OD - Ocellar diameter; OOL -
Ocellocular distance; POL - Postocellar length;
TSS - Trans-scutal sulcus; TL - Length of thorax;
TW - Width of thorax; T2 - Second abdominal
tergite; DZCU - Department of Zoology,
University of Calicut; ZSI - Zoological Survey
of India, Calicut.
Monelata completus sp. nov.
(Figs. 1-4)
Female: Length =1.11 mm. Head black;
thorax and abdomen deep blackish brown;
propodeum and petiole pale brown; eyes black;
'Accepted February, 1998
■Western Ghats Regional Station,
Zoological Survey of India, Calicut 673 002, Kerala, India.
-'Department of Zoology, University of Calicut,
Calicut 673 635, Kerala, India.
wings hyaline; veins deep brown. Antennal
pilosity and marginal fringe of wings brownish.
Body pubescence and scales on petiole dull white.
Head (Figs. 1-4): HL:HB(DV) = 9:11;
HL:HB (AV) = 12:11.2; viewed from above
distinctly transverse, smooth, shiny, scattered
erect pubescence, ocelli minute, on a slightly
elevated area when viewed laterally;
OOL:OD:POL = 8:2:3; occiput slightly
emarginate; occipital flange narrow; gena not
bulging but converging behind eyes to occiput;
postgenal cushion distinct, with a lappet-like
appearance; eyes globular, not bulging laterally,
bare and located much anteriorly, sub-oval,
slightly shorter than finely converging gena;
viewed laterally higher than long; rather
trapezoid, HH:HL =13.5:12; face and frons very
hairy; frontal shelf protruding, antennal insertion
slightly above level of vertex; mandible bidentate;
malar groove wanting; malar space almost half
of shortest width of eye; antenna 13-segmented,
last 4 segments graually enlarged, terminal club
segment much enlarged, longer than 3
penultimate segments together, antenna clothed
with fine hairs, subequal to length of F2; scape
thinner basally and thicker medially; length to
thickness ratio of antennal segments from scape
to F2 as follows: 31.5:7.87, 12:6, 6.7:3.77,
3.5:3.76; F2 to F7 subequal; proportions of F8
to FI 1 being 4. 2:5. 8, 6. 5:7. 9, 6.6:8.1,20.9:10.45.
Thorax (Figs. 1-2): TL:TB = 18:10;
slightly narrower than head; cervix distinct,
smooth, overgrown laterally and basally with
thick tufts of hairs and semi-hyaline scales,
giving an overall foamy appearance; pronotum
visible as a band anterolateral to mesonotum,
pronotal collar in a wide circular area; metanotum
260
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NEW DESCRIPTIONS
0.25 mm
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
261
Figs: 1-4. Monelata completes sp. nov. (female)
. Body profile; 2. Body dorsal view; 3. Head anterior view; 4. Antenna
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
smooth with two pairs of erect setae; notauli
absent; TSS not very prominent; scutellum a
rather broad zone, without any grooves or pits;
gently arched with no median carina and basal
fovea; shield wide with slightly convex lateral
and posterior borders; metanotum with a reduced
median and two lateral longitudinal keels;
propodeum with a raised median longitudinal
keel and with dorsal semi-hyaline zone and lesser
raised two lateral ones; posterior border carinate;
area between carinae and keel smooth and bare;
propleuron and mesopleuron bare and smooth,
with a faint impression of stemaulus; metapleural
area covered with fine adpressed pubescence; legs
normal, fore-tibia without an outwardly - directed
spine; tibial spur formula 1.0.0; wings normal;
forewing not longer than meso + metasoma
combined and without an incised tip; FW L:B =
45: 14.5; veins longer than 0.33 of length of wing,
sm:total vein length = 7:16.5; distal portion of
wing with rather long fringe, 0.33 of wing width;
hind wing narrow, with fringe subequal to width
of wing.
Abdomen: (Fig 1-2): ABL:ABW = 7.85:3. 1
Petiole clothed with semi-hyaline, elongate scales,
mixed with setae concealing posterior margin of
petiole and basal margin of T2; petiole distinctly
longer than broad; sub-parallel and abruptly
narrowed to apex, T2 extending to 0.78 of abdomen
(petiole + tergites); segments beneath T2 visible
only as rings. T2:T3:T4:T5:T6 - 13.3:1:0.5:1:1.
Male: Unknown
Refer
Huggert L. ( 1 982): New taxa of soil-inhabiting diapriids
from India and Sri Lanka (Hymenoptera,
Proctotrupoidea). Revue suisse Zool. 89(1): 183-
200.
Host: Unknown
Holotype: Female: india. Kerala:
Tiruvannur: l.vi.1996, Coll. Mohana. (ZSI).
Paratypes: Two females, one with data
same as holotype, the other also with same data
except collection date being 1 6.x. 1 996. (DZCU).
Etymology: This species name is derived
from a prominent character, namely forewing
with the distal margin entire and not incised.
Discussion
This species differs from the only known
Oriental species, Monelata incisipennis, in the
following characters:
— Distal margin of forewing entire,
without incision. (In M. incisipennis distal
margin of forewing incised).
— Forewing not longer than meso +
metasoma combined. (In M. incisipennis
forewing longer than meso + metasoma
combined).
— Proportions of antennal segments.
AcKNOWLEDG EM ENTS
Rajmohana K. is grateful to the Director,
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta for granting
a Senior Research Fellowship for this study. We
thank Mr. C. Radhakrishnan (Officer-in-charge,
ZSI, Calicut), for help, and the University of
Calicut for facilities.
•NCES
Rajmohana, K. & T.C. Narendran (1996): Four new
species of the genus Phcienoserphus Kieffer
(Hymenoptera: Proctotrupidae) from India. J. ent.
Res. 20(1): 43-51.
262
JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2). AUG. 2000
A NEW SPECIES OF PUNTIUS (CYPRINIDAE : CYPRININAE)
FROM MANIPUR, INDIA1
A.G.K. Menon, K. Rema Devi2 and W. Vishwanath3
( With two plates)
Key words: Cyprinidae, Puntius manipurensis sp.nov., P. phutunio , Manipur
Puntius manipurensis is described as a new cyprinid species of the genus Puntius , from Loktak
lake, Manipur, India. It is charactei ised as follows: osseous, serrated principal spiny ray of dorsal
fin, incomplete lateral line with 22-24 scales, 3.5 rows of scales in transverse series from the
anteriormost portion of dorsal fin to lateral line, 3.5 rows between lateral line and pelvic insertion,
without barbels, two spots on sides of body: a shoulder one on 3rd and 4th lateral line scales and
a caudal one on 17th and 18th lateral line scales. The closest relative of P. manipurensis is
P. phutunio. The affinities of these two species and other closely related species with a serrated
dorsal fin ray, without barbels and with two spots on the lateral sides of the body, namely ticto,
punctatus and stoliczkanus are discussed. A key to Indian Puntius species, including the new
species with a strong osseous and serrated primary dorsal fin ray, is provided.
Cyprinid fishes of the genus Puntius are
widely distributed in south and southeast Asia.
The species of this genus have a single pair of
maxillary barbels or none, normally 8 branched
rays in dorsal fin, 30 or less vertebrae, scales
thick with radii projecting from the focus to the
margin like spokes on a wheel, without any
posterior deflection in the lateral fields. Puntius
species are small to tiny, less than 150 mm in
total length. The Puntius from Manipur is very
distinct from phutunio (Hora 1921, Menon 1954)
which it was so far referred to, chiefly in its shape
and colour markings, and also from all other
Puntius species described previously (Day 1 875-
78, 1889; Jayaram 1991; Talwar and Jhingran
1991; Menon 1999), hence it is described here
as a new species, P. manipurensis. The
descriptions are based on eight specimens
collected by Dr. W. Vishwanath from Loktak lake
at Moirang, Manipur and deposited in the fish
collections of the Zoological Survey of India,
Chennai. Measurements follow standard
‘Accepted August, 1998
^Zoological Survey of India, Southern Regional Station,
1 00, Santhome High Road, Chennai 600 028,
Tamil Nadu, India.
^Department of Life Sciences, Manipur University,
Canchipur 795 003, Manipur, India.
practices (Menon 1987), except for pre-pectoral
distance, which is taken as the distance from
snout tip to pectoral insertion; the mean values
for the specimens are given first, followed in
parenthesis by range as percentage.
Puntius manipurensis sp. nov.
(Plate 1, Figs. 1-3)
Holotype: F. (Fish) 4261, ZSI/SRS
(Zoological Survey of India/Southern Regional
Station), 40 mm Standard Length (SL), Loktak
lake, Moirang, India, collected by W.
Vishwanath, April, 1995.
Paratypes: F. 4262, ZSI/SRS, 7 specimens,
34-45 mm SL, data same as for holotype.
Diagnosis: A small elongate Puntius
species with two spots on the body, a shoulder
spot on 3rd and 4th lateral line scale rows and a
caudal spot on 17th and 18th lateral line scales;
scales edged dark; without barbels; ossified and
denticulated dorsal spiny ray; incomplete lateral
line with 24-25 scales and 3.5 scale rows between
it and root of the pelvic fin.
Description: D. iii, 8; P. i. 13-14; V. i. 7,
1; A. iii, 5; C. 10+9. Body elongate, its depth
32.8 (29.7-35.1) percent of SL; head small, its
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2). AUG. 2000
263
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
length 29.1 (27.5-30.0) and its maximum depth
22.5 (20.9-23.8) of SL; snout short, smaller than
eye, 24.3 (22.9-25.8) of head length (HL), 66.3
(60.4-73.7) of interorbital width; eyes large,
visible from ventral side, diameter 27.1 (25.2-
30.0) of head, 73.9 (67.4-79.5) of interorbital
width; mouth semicircular and inferior; barbels
absent.
Dorsal fin origin closer to caudal fin base
than to tip of snout, starting after 8th scale of
lateral line, slightly behind origin of ventral,
predorsal length 52.9 (51.5-53.7), postdorsal
length 51.0 (47.8-58.7) of SL; margin of dorsal
almost straight, principal spiny ray of dorsal fin
osseous and denticulated, with flexible portion
much shorter than head, its stiff portion a little
more than postorbital part, dorsal fin height 21.3
(19.5-23.8) of SL, 72.2 (60.1-81.0) of HL.
Pectoral fin pointed in profile, almost reaches
pelvic fin, length 21.0 (19.2-23.8) of SL, 72.2
(64.8-80.0) of HL, pre-pectoral distance 28.9
(27.8-30.4) of SL. Pelvic fin pointed, reaches anal
opening, length 20.4 (19.2-22.6) of SL, 70.3
(63.9-77.0) of HL, pre-pelvic distance 49.7 (47.6-
51.7) of SL. Anal fin laid flat, falls 2 scale rows
short of caudal fin base, its length 51.4 (44.5-
55.8) of HL, preanal distance 71.2 (70.2-72.5)
of SL. Caudal fin as long as length of head, deeply
forked, its lobe pointed; caudal peduncle depth
68.1 (62.5-78.6) of its length, 13.5 (12.6-14.4)
of SL, its length 19.9 (16.6-21.7) of SL.
Maximum length of body cavity 44. 1 (42. 1 -46. 1 )
of SL. Gill rakers broad and low, 7 on the lower
arm of the first gill arch and 3 on the upper arm.
Scales large; lateral line incomplete, pored
scales ceasing by 5th or 6th scales; scales along
lateral line 22-24; 3.5 rows in transverse series
from dorsal fin origin to lateral line, 3.5 from
lateral line to pelvic fin base; predorsal scales
8-9.
Colour in preserved specimens: Males
darker, a spot on 3rd and 4th lateral line scales,
prominent in paler specimens, another spot on
the 17th and 18th lateral line scales; scales edged
with pigments; two or three rows of spots on
dorsal. Fresh specimens with yellowish fins;
pelvic, anal and sides behind pectoral crimson.
Maximum length: 45 mm SL.
Distribution: india: Manipur, Loktak lake.
Etymology: The new species is named
after the collection locality.
Remarks: Geographically, the closest
relative of P. manipurensis seems to be
P. phutunio (Hamilton 1822), which is known
from West Bengal and Bangladesh. Like
P. phutunio , it has an incomplete lateral line with
3.5 rows of scales between the origin of dorsal
fin and the lateral line, with 3.5 rows of scales
between lateral line and pelvic fin base. There
is, however, no similarity in colour and body form
(Plate 2, Figs. 1 and 4), P. manipurensis having
an elongate body. Hora (1921) mistook the
species for P. phutunio and described its
distribution as given in the field guide by
Annandale (vide Hora, op. cit.). The colour of
the living specimen, as observed by Annandale,
is “The dorsal surface brownish, deeply tinged
with metallic green and dotted with black, sides
metallic crimson, each scale edged with black;
ventral surface silvery; pelvic, anal and caudal
fins crimson; dorsal and pectoral bright
olivaceous green with the rays more or less
infuscated and with black spots on the dorsal.
Iris crimson, lower part of cheek and operculum
silvery white, densely speckled with black”.
P. phutunio is characterised by vertical bands
(Plate 2, Fig. 4). In its lateral transverse rows
P. manipurensis resembles P. stoliczkanus (Day
1871) known from Burma and Thailand, and
P. punctatus (Day 1865) known from the
southwest tip of peninsular India and Sri Lanka,
but differs from them in having an incomplete
lateral line.
The new species belongs to the ticto group
of fishes with which it shares the following
characters: absence of barbels, presence of
osseous and serrated principal spiny ray in dorsal
fin and two spots on the body, a shoulder spot
264
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Menon, A.G.K. et al.\ Puntius manipurensis sp. nov.
Plate 1
Figs. 1-3: 1. Lateral view of Puntius manipurensis sp. nov., 40.0 mm SL, Holotype, F. 4261, ZSI/SRS;
2. Lateral view of P. manipurensis, 35.5 mm SL;
3. Lateral view of fresh specimen of P. manipurensis, 35.5 mm SL.
The authors and the BNHS are grateful to the Mehta Scientific Education and Research Trust,
Mumbai, for sponsoring this colour plate.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
265
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Menon, A.G.K. et al. : Puntius manipurensis sp. nov.
Plate 2
Figs. 1-4: 1. Lateral view of P. manipurensis , 40.0 mm SL.;
2. Lateral view of P. ticto, 38.0 mm SL, F 2100, Minjur, Tamil Nadu.;
3. Lateral view of P. punctatus, 40.0 mm, SL, F 3466, Kottayam, Kerala;
4. Lateral view of P. phutunio , 24.0 mm SL, UMMZ 208868, Rangpur, Bangladesh.
The authors and the BNHS are grateful to the Mehta Scientific Education and Research Trust,
Mumbai, for sponsoring this colour plate.
266
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
and a caudal spot. This species seems to have
evolved in the Loktak lake from the same stock
as P. tic to (4.5 rows of scales between lateral line
and pelvic fin base) known to be widely
distributed in India, P. punctatus in southern tip
of peninsular India and Sri Lanka (Plate 2) and
P. stoliczkanus (3.5 rows of scales between lateral
line and pelvic fin base) in Burma and Thailand.
Key to the Puntius species with a strong, osseous and
SERRATED PRIMARY DORSAL FIN RAY
1 . With 1 pair of maxillary barbels 2
— Without barbels 3
2. Body deep, 4 times in SL; no black spot above
anterior anal base P.fraseri Hora & Misra
— Body elongate, 5 times in SL; a black spot
above anterior ana! base
P. sharmai Menon & Rema Devi
3. Lateral line (LI) scales 36 or more
P. ambassis (Day)
— LI scales less than 36 4
4. LI scales more than 30
P. guganio (Ham.)
— LI scales less than 30 5
5. Lateral transverse (L tr) scale rows 5. 5/5. 5 ..
P. conchonius (Ham.)
— L tr rows fewer 6
6. L tr scale rows between LI and pelvic fin base
4.5 P. ticto (Ham.)
— L tr scale rows between LI and pelvic fin base
less than 4.5 7
7. Lateral line complete 8
Lateral line incomplete 10
Refer
Day, F. ( 1 865): On the fishes of Cochin, on the Malabar
coast of India. Proc. Zool. Soc. London: 302.
Day, F. (1871): Monograph of Indian Cyprinidae.Jowm.
Roy. Asiat. Soc. Bengal : 328.
Day, F. (1875-78): The Fishes of India; being a natural
history of the fishes known to inhabit the seas and
freshwaters of India, Burma and Ceylon. London,
xx + 778 pp., 195 pis.
Day, F. (1889): The Fauna of British India, including
8. LI scale rows 20 . P. setnai Chhapgar & Sane
— LI scale rows more than 20 9
9. Two black spots on LI, one above 3rd scale
and the 2nd a little before 19th LI scale; dorsal
fin not spotted P. stoliczkanus (Day)
— Two black spots on LI, one below
commencement of LI and the 2nd beyond 19th
LI scale; dorsal fin spotted in rows
P. punctatus (Day)
10. LI with 24 or more scales ... P. gelius (Ham.)
— LI with iess than 24 scales 11
11. A horizontal line on sides of body and
two distinct dark blotches on caudal peduncle
P. shalynius Yazdani & Talukdar
— No horizontal iine on body or paired blotch on
caudal peduncle 12
12. Body deep and banded; dorsal without spots,
but with a band P. phutunio (Ham.)
— Body slender, not banded, but with two spots;
dorsal with rows of spots
P. manipurensis sp. nov.
Comparative material P. phutunio :
University of Michigan Museum of Zoology
(UMMZ) 208868, 24 mm SL, Rangpur, Dharia
river, Bangladesh, 2.iv.l978, coll. W. Rainboth
& A. Rahman.
Acknowledgement
We are grateful to the Director, Zoological
Survey of India and Officer- in-Charge, Southern
Regional Station, ZSI for facilities.
ENCES
Ceylon and Burma. Fishes, 1 , Taylor and Francis.
London, pp. 548.
Hamilton, F. (1822): An account of the fishes found in
river Ganges and its branches. Archibald Constable
and Co. and Hurst, Robinson & Co., Edinburgh
and London, vii + 405 pp., 39 pis.
Hora, S.L. (1921): Fish and Fisheries of Manipur with
observations on those of Naga Hills. Rec. Indian
Mus. 22: 165-216.
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2), AUG. 2000
267
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Jayaram, K.C. (1991): Revision of the Genus Puntius
Hamilton from the Indian Region (Pisces :
Cypriniformes, Cyprinidae, Cyprininae). Rec. Zool.
Surv. India, Occ. pap. No. 135: 1-178.
Menon, A.G.K. (1954): Further observations on the fish
fauna of the Manipur State. Rec. Indian Mus.
52(1): 21-26.
Menon, A.G.K. (1987): The Fauna of India and the
Adjacent Countries. Pisces, 4, Pt I Homalopteridae.
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, x + 259 pp.
Menon, A.G.K. ( 1 999): Checklist — Freshwater Fishes of
India. Zoological Survey of India, Occ. Pap. No. 1 75 ,
pp. 366.
Talwar, P.K. & Jhingran, ArunG. (1991): Inland Fishes
of India and Adjacent Countries. Voi. 1 . Oxford and
IBH Publ., New Delhi, pp. 541 .
■ ■ ■
268
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
REVIEWS
1. THE TIGER IS A GENTLEMAN by Vivek Sinha, Published by Wildlife,
Bangalore, 1999. Pp. 160, (23 x 18 cm). Hardbound price Rs. 395/-
For several years now, any high quality
wildlife photograph published in journals and
books in India is likely to be the work of Vivek
Sinha, retired bureaucrat, aeronautics engineer
and wildlife photographer par excellence. The
husband and wife team of Vivek and Arati Sinha
are committed conservationists, whose photo-
graphs speak eloquently of India’s wildlife.
In this slim volume, Sinha writes of the
unforeseen encounters he has had with wildlife
during his camera hunts. How it feels being
charged by an angry tiger settling in new
territory, the unlooked for suspense when their
jeep breaks down amongst elephants, and similar
encounters where only the forbearance of wild
animals brought a happy ending. There are 15
chapters all superbly illustrated with Sinha’s
photographs.
The book is beautifully produced and
worthy of its subject — the wildlife of India.
■ J.C. DANIEL
2. THE DANCE OF THE SARDS: ESSAYS OF A WANDERING
NATURALIST, by S. Theodore Baskaran, Published by Oxford University Press,
New Delhi, 1999. Pp. xviii+240, (21.5 x 14 cm). Hardbound price Rs. 295/-
There are very few Indian bureaucrats who
utilize their time and opportunity in a meaningful
way. Mr. S. Theodore Baskaran, a retired high
official of the Indian Postal Service, is one of
them. All his extra time was devoted to the study
of natural history and he utilized the opportunity
of his postings to different parts of the country
to visit the natural areas. For the last 30 years,
he has delighted readers of the highly respected
Hindu newspaper by his eminently readable
articles and filled the void left by M. Krishnan,
another wonderful raconteur of nature, who
would make even mundane observations on a
house sparrow or a sambar into a masterpiece of
natural history anecdotal writing.
The book contains 53 highly readable short
essays, previously published in the Hindu ,
Swagat , Frontline and Down to Earth. Wherever
required, the information is updated. For
example, the article “Their well-being is a litmus
test” was first published in the Hindu in 1982.
In this book, it is published as “Driver to
Extinction”, but the information on the discovery
of Jerdon’s courser in 1986 and forest spotted
owlet in 1997 has been added as a footnote.
Mr. Baskaran is really a wandering
naturalist, as the subtitle of the book says. He
has travelled all over the country, watching
Ceylon frogmouth in Indira Gandhi Wildlife
Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu and the dipper in the
Himalayas, sarus crane in Gujarat and leaf
monkeys in Tripura. Twenty-three articles are
on birds, 10 on mammals, 9 on habitats, 8 on
conservation issues and 3 on domestic animals.
One of the most interesting and informative
articles is on the donkeys of the world. It is not a
treatise on these much-maligned animals, but
still it is full of new information. Despite the
fact that human beings use millions of donkeys
for various chores all over the world, only Kenya
has recognised their value and has printed a
postage stamp in their honour. Mr. Baskaran
should know, because he served in the Indian
Postal Service for almost 35 years.
The book is not without blemishes. I do
not know from where Mr. Baskaran got the
information that 7,456 great Indian bustard are
left ‘in the whole country’ (article first published
in the Hindu on April 12, 1988). At that time,
the total number could be between 1,500 and
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
269
REVIEWS
now sadly it is less than 1,000. Mr. Baskaran
has also made the common mistake, (or was it
the editor’s (?), of writing ‘blackbuck’ the
English name for Antilope cervicapra or Indian
antelope, as two words — black buck. Proper
nouns are sometimes written in lower case,
e.g. Eastern ghats, and ‘society’ for the
Bombay Natural History Society. If we over-
look such small mistakes, The Dance of the
Sarus makes a good companion to those
interested in light reading on Indian natural
history.
■ ASAD R. RAHMANI
3. THE SERPENT’S TONGUE by Indraneil Das, Published by Edition Chimaira,
Frankfurt, 1998. Pp. 121, (21.5 x 14 cm). Price not mentioned.
In the serpent’s tongue, Indraneil Das, the
most versatile and prolific among present day
herpetologists, looks at the vernacular names of
the reptiles and amphibians of the Indian
subcontinent and adjacent countries. 1,738
vernacular names, 88 of amphibians and 1,650
of reptiles, from 70 languages have been listed.
As the author says, knowledge of the vernacular
names may give clues to behaviour, status,
morphology, season of occurrence, habitat and
some may be onomatopoeic, all of which are
useful for the field biologist. Many of the generic
and species names are derived from vernacular
names and it is interesting to know the origin of
such names. The absence of diacritical markings
makes the correct pronunciation of the names
difficult, compounded by the fact that English is
not exactly an useful language for phonetic
interpretation of other languages. What is now
required is for Indian scientists to write back to
the author the correct meaning of the names
given in their mother tongue wherever there is
an error, and try and spell out the names in tune
with their pronunciation. The ideal solution
would be to have a CD-Rom where the names
are pronounced by a person skilled in a particular
language. The book with its indices is a very
commendable and useful effort indeed.
■ J.C. DANIEL
4. THE FAUNA OF BANGALORE by S. Karthikeyan. Published by World Wild
Fund for Nature, Bangalore, 1999. Pp. 48 + vi plates, (21 x 13.5 cm), Price not
mentioned.
The booklet is a compilation of data from
various sources. The checklist is the first of its
kind, as it lists all the major faunal groups —
Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, Amphibians, Fishes
and Butterflies recorded so far from Bangalore
city and its surroundings. The content of
this booklet is very basic and the author
makes it clear that its purpose is to assist
amateurs.
Some major changes in nomenclature have
been omitted. For example, Rana limnocharis
(p. 33) has been changed to Limnonectes
limnocharis , Riopa punctata (p. 30) is now
Lygosoma punctatus. Such mistakes could
have been avoided if recent literature had
been referred to. These, along with a few spel-
ling mistakes, eg. Macropodius instead of
Macropodus or Bungarus caerulescens (p. 31)
instead of B. caereleus are some of the flaws
in this small booklet, which otherwise is a good
effort by the author to create conserva-
tion awareness in an urban area.
■ MEGHANA GAVAND
270
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
1. DISTRIBUTION OF CHITAL AXIS AXIS (ERXLEBEN 1777)
IN BUENOS AIRES PROVINCE, ARGENTINA
( With one text-figure)
Chital (Axis axis) was first introduced in
Argentina for sport hunting in 1928 and 1930
in Magdalena, Buenos Aires province (Navas
1987). The species became well established in
the country, and there have been records from
Formosa, La Pampa, Neuquen, Cordoba, Santa
Fe, Rio Negro, Entre Rios, Tucuman and San
Luis provinces (Chebez 1994). The range
expansion of chital has been assisted by
translocation to new areas, mainly as a result of
commercial interest from game ranches. Buenos
Aires province manages chital as a big game
species, and also permits shooting to control
populations.
Fig. 1: Distribution of chital (Axis axis Erxleben 1777) in Buenos Aires Province, Argentina,
South America. ■ Previous records (Navas 1987; Galliari et al. 1991) • New records
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
271
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
From 1 995 to 1 997, we completed some field
surveys to determine the ranges of introduced
ungulates. We also compiled all literature and
unpublished information from the local Wildlife
Department to determine the past and current
distribution and status of Axis axis and other exotic
ungulates in Buenos Aires province.
In the study area, the species distribution
is closely associated with Celtis tala forests (Rio
de La Plata estuarine area), and with the two
mountain chains (Tandilia and Ventania systems)
in the province.
We confirmed chital occurrence in
Magdalena, Chascomus, Castelli, Tornquist,
Bahia Blanca, Gral, Lavalle and Berisso (Galliari
et al. 1991) and also in General Pueyrredon and
Balcarce departments (Navas 1987). Addi-
tionally, there have been new records for the
species at General Belgrano, General Madariaga,
Refer
Chebez, J.C. (1994): Los que se van, especies argenlinas
en peligro. Editoral Albatros SACI, Buenos Aires.
Galliari, C.A., W.D. Berman & F.J. Goin (1991):
Mamiferos. Comision de investigacionescientificas de
la Provinciade Buenos Aires. Situacion Anibiental de
Tordillo, Tandil, Coronel Suarez, Guamini and
Dolores (Fig. 1).
It is necessary to delineate distribution to
study the biology and assess the impact of chital
on local flora, particularly the indigenous tala
( Celtis tala) forests and pampas grasslands.
July 27, 1 999 BRUNO CARPINETTI
Direccion de Administracion
de Recursos Naturales,
Ministerio de Asuntos Agrarios
de la Prov. de Bs. Aires,
Calle 71 N° 488, La Plata (1900), Argentina.
MARIANO L. MERINO
Seccion Mastozoologia,
Departamento Zoologia Vertebrados ,
Museo de la Plata.
Paseo del Bosque s/n (1900) La Plata
Argentina. CICPBA.
NC ES
la Provincia de Buenos Aires. A-Recursos y rasgos
naturales en la evaluacion ambiental.
Navas, J.R. ( 1 987): Los vertebrados exoticos introducidos
en la Argentina. Rev. Mus. Arg. Cs. Nat.. Zoologia 14:
7-38.
2. TAKIN BUDORCAS TAXICOLOR AT MENLA RESERVE FOREST (3,050 M),
EAST SIKKIM: A WESTWARD RANGE EXTENSION AND OBSERVATIONS
OF UNUSUAL BEHAVIOUR
The Mishmi takin Budorcas taxicolor
Hodgson was finally sighted in Sikkim in June
1999. For decades there were rumours of a
solitary, large mammal locally called Markin’
by the Lachungpa tribals of north Sikkim.
In recent times, the animal was first
reported from Lema ( c . 2,400 m) in Lachung,
north Sikkim in September 1976. In May- June
1984, a villager Mr. Jorgay Lachungpa told
me that an animal called Markin’ occasionally
comes across the Tembawa ridge adjoining
Dombang valley, probably from the Chumbi
valley to the Shingba Rhododendron Sanctuary
area (c. 3,400 m), north Sikkim.
During the All India Tiger Census,
December 1993, conducted by Mr. C. Lachungpa
Divisional Forest Officer (Wildlife) of the
Department of Forests, Environment and
Wildlife, he sighted a large herbivorous animal
from afar in a dense area of Menmoitso Reserve
Forest ( c . 2,500 m) in east Sikkim. His
photograph, taken with a normal lens, showed
vaguely a large animal like a bear or yak, but
due to the distance it was not possible to identify
it. It was suspected to be either a gaur Bos gaums
or Sikkim stag (Shou) Cervus elaphus wallichi
Cuvier, possibly strayed over from Bhutan or the
Chumbi valley. In July 1998, there was an
272
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
unconfirmed report from Khedum village (c.
2,000 m), in Lachung valley of a similar animal.
On June 13, 1999, Mr. Bishnu Kumar
Sharma, a daily wager of Kyongnosla Alpine
Sanctuary, east Sikkim on information from local
people, had a glimpse of an unfamiliar large
mammal at the 15 Mile Police Checkpost,
Kyongnosla ( c . 3,000 m) beside the Rongchu
river. The animal was c. 250 m from the river
near the department’s plant nursery belonging
to the Environment and Pollution Control (EPC)
division. Due to dense fog, he could not see the
animal clearly. The next day, local people saw
the animal return to the area at around 1650 hrs.
It came near the bridge, but returned towards
the nursery.
On June 15, 1999, at c. 1300 hrs, this
animal came once again to the same area and
was seen grazing for nearly 40 minutes. Then it
actually crossed the river through the surging
water and came towards the road.
Apprehensively, Bishnu approached almost 15-
20 m close to the unfamiliar animal, but could
not identify it. It went back by the same trail.
Bishnu returned and sent a wireless message to
Gangtok.
On June 16, 1999, Mr. C. Lachungpa
reached the site at around 0600 hrs. He identified
the site as part of Menla Reserve Forest, which
is contiguous with Menmoitso forest further east,
extending to the Pangolakha range separating
Sikkim from Bhutan. At around 1230 hrs, he
could go close enough to the animal to take
photographs. He had with him Prater’s ‘the book
of Indian animals’ and immediately identified it
as an adult male Mishmi takin Budorcas
taxicolor, its description matching perfectly with
the ‘golden-yellow colour merging into dark
brown or black on the flanks and quarters’. The
animal was unusually well built and seemed to
be interested in a herd of domestic cattle further
down the road. He watched it rubbing its horns
against a Rhododendron bush, nearly uprooting
it. It then turned to climb up to the base of an
Abies dens a, and slept under the tree in full view
of the crowd of onlookers for two hours.
On waking and sensing human presence
it wandered away, grazing and browsing on
nearby bushes, sometimes going out of view. As
Mr. Lachungpa and Bishnu changed positions
and hid themselves, the takin appeared again on
the trail, halted after 4-5 steps, turned to the
slushy area near the riverbed and tried to cross
the stream further down from the earlier spot.
The takin then came to a freshly eroded debris
slide and walked up it before seeing the two men.
It then climbed up to the bushes and watched
aggressively before resuming grazing. Mr.
Lachungpa and Bishnu took more photographs.
The weather changed to a cloudy drizzle
and the takin was last seen walking into the forest
towards a ridge at around 1500 hrs. The local
people, police and army personnel were told to
watch its movements. On the night of June 19,
1999, the takin finally crossed over and headed
up along the western flank of the Kyongnosla
Alpine Sanctuary. On June 22, it was reportedly
seen going further north towards Lagyap forest,
presumably towards its old haunts near Lachung.
However, in less than a week, the migrant
graziers began reporting harassment by the takin.
It had taken to wandering around the three small
livestock camps, attempting to mate with the
cows and female yaks (called kchaunri’) and
scaring away their horses. Three wildlife staff of
Kyongnosla Alpine Sanctuary, Kalusingh Rai,
Jeevan Rai and M.B. Pradhan, had begun
patrol ling the area to keep track of its movements.
On July 23, 1999, they suddenly came upon the
takin which promptly charged at them and
chased them up a rhododendron branch and on
to a big ‘saur’ ( Betula sp.) tree. The takin
remained at the foot of the tree for some time
before moving off.
On August 5, 1999, I visited the area in
connection with a study of grazing patterns in
the sanctuary along with the three staff and driver
Ramesh Tamang. We went up the old helipad
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
273
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
road for about 4 km before stopping off to visit
the first goth or livestock camp. There we saw a
pregnant cow with both forelimbs sprained or
broken, caused by the takin’s attempted mating.
She was unable even to stand.
Climbing up towards the temporary shed
of the second goth , we were alerted by shouts
behind us. The takin against the skyline less than
100 m away was slowly and unhurriedly
lumbering down towards us. Due to the earlier
encounter, our staff was in favour of running
away when the animal reached a close 30 m,
separated from us only by a small stream. The
takin, however, walked down its daily route
towards the goth and its indignant owner
standing outside waving his arms. The animal
stood watching him for a few moments before
crossing the stream to our side and moving away
further downwards.
Nothing seemed to really disturb the
animal and it was unnatural to see that the takin
had no fear at all of man. Two days later, on
August 7, 1999, the takin gored to death the
shepherd of the third goth. His grandson, who
escaped, ran to inform the checkpost police and
our staff. They returned to see the body and shreds
of clothing in the surrounding rhododendron
bushes. The grandson informed us that the old
man had been poaching monal and blood
pheasants in the sanctuary and harassing the
takin, which had attached itself to his flock of
sheep. That day they had suddenly encountered
the animal, only to be charged by it, and being
the younger of the two, the grandson had
managed to run away.
This is the first time that the old reports
could be verified and with photographic proof.
The takin, which is protected in India under
Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972,
as amended up to 1993, does occur in Sikkim.
As of now, all the three goat-antelopes in India,
i.e. the goral, serow and takin can be said to be
found in Sikkim.
Perhaps separated from its herd, this is the
same solitary takin isolated on this side of the
Chola Range that has been sighted over the years.
In fact, the forests ran almost contiguous to north
Sikkim along the entire flank of the famed
Chumbi Valley (now in Tibet) starting from the
Chola range which forms the eastern boundary
of Sikkim. This is also the route used by the tiger
Panther a tigris to travel up to Lachung and
Yumthang in north Sikkim up to five decades
ago and as recently as November 29, 1998, when
an adult male tiger’s pugmarks were lifted from
the same Lagyap Reserve Forest above Gangtok
by Mr. C. Lachungpa. Hence, this sighting of
the takin in Sikkim proves a definite westward
extension of its range, adding yet another
endangered species to the already threatened
faunal diversity of Sikkim.
ACKNOWLEDG EM ENTS
I thank the Department of Forests,
Environment & Wildlife, Govt, of Sikkim,
including the Chief Wildlife Warden, the
Sanctuary staff and driver Ramesh Tamang for
enabling this record.
July 13, 1999 USHA GANGUL1-LACHUNGPA
Department of Forests,
Environment & Wildlife,
Government of Sikkim, Deorali,
Gangtok 737 102,
Sikkim, India.
3. FIRST RECORD OF OCCURRENCE OF ALBINO CRESTLESS HIMALAYAN
PORCUPINE HYSTRIX BRACHYURA LINNAEUS, 1758
(RODENTIA : HYSTRICIDAE) IN INDIA
While examining the skins of porcupines 1792; crestless Himalayan porcupine Hystrix
[Indian crested porcupine Hystrix indica Kerr, brachyura Linnaeus, 1758; brush-tailed
274
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
porcupine Atherurus macrourus (Linnaeus
1758)] present in the National Zoological
Collection of the Zoological Survey of India,
Calcutta, we came across an albino specimen of
the crestless Himalayan porcupine Hystrix
brachyura collected from Manipur, India. The
literature has no record of albinism in Hystrix
brachyura in India.
All measurements, external and cranial,
are in millimetres.
Material examined: India: Manipur:
Imphal district: 1 $ subadult: 28 km north of
Imphal onDimapur Road, 29.xi.1945, coll. M.L.
Roonwal. Rolled skin, RegnNo. 1 1349, Mammal
and Osteology Section, Zoological Survey of
India, Calcutta.
Measurements: Female. Subadult.
External: head and body 555.0, tail 120.0,
hindfoot 85.0, ear 37.0, Cranial: occipitonasal
119.0, nasal 66.2, palatal length 55.0, length of
Refer
Corbet, G.B. & J.E. Hill (1992): The mammals of the
Indomalayan Region: a Systematic review. British
Museum (Nat. Hist.), London.
Roonwal, M.L. (1950): Contribution to the fauna of
Manipur State, Assam. III. Mammals, with special
bulla 17.2, zygomatic width 64.3, diastemma
32.0, length of mandible 75.5.
Diagnostic Character: Absence of crest
of bristles on the crown, tail not brush-like. The
specimen is albino i.e. without any pigmentation.
Distribution: india: Sikkim, Assam,
Nagaland, Manipur (Roonwal 1950). Nepal,
Bangladesh, central and southern China,
Myanmar, Thailand, Indochina, Malaya,
Sumatra, Borneo, Singapore, Penang and Hainan
Is. (Corbet and Hill 1992, Wilson and Reeder
1993).
September 15, 1999 A JOY KUMAR MANDAL
M.K. GHOSH
Zoological Survey of India,
Prani Vigyan Bhavan,
‘M’ Block, New Alipore,
Calcutta 700 053,
West Bengal, India.
-NC ES
reference to the family Muridae (Order Rodentia).
Rec. Indian Mus. 47(1): 1-64.
Wilson, D.E. &D.M. Reeder (1993): Mammal species of
the World. A taxonomic and geographic reference.
2nd edn. Smithsonian Inst. Press, Washington DC.
4. FIRST RECORD OF GANGETIC RIVER DOLPHIN, PLATANISTA GANGETICA-
AT POBITORA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, ASSAM
The Gangetic river dolphin, Platanista
gangetica , locally known as sihu , is a native of
the Ganga and Brahmaputra river systems. On
August 8, 1998, while on inspection duty, I
sighted a juvenile Gangetic dolphin at Garanga
beel on the southwest boundary of Pobitora
Wildlife Sanctuary. This rare and endangered
animal was observed plunging up and down in
the water for about an hour, maneuvering in an
area of around 100 sq. m. The dolphin was grey
and approximately 90-100 cm long.
The dolphin was sighted about 2-3 km away
from River Brahmaputra and hardly 220 m from
River Kolong, a tributary of Brahmaputra. During
the sighting period, the Sanctuary was submerged
in flood waters, up to 3. 5 -9. 5 m from normal
ground level. The flood water remains in the
Sanctuary for almost three months i.e. from June
to August.
The dolphin was last sighted further
downstream on August 17, 1998. After observing
the single animal for almost 10 days, it was
concluded that the Gangetic dolphin occasionally
migrates to high flood areas during the monsoon.
This is the first record of dolphin in the
beels of Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary.
April 28, 1 999 MRIGEN BARUA
Range Forest Officer ,
Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuaiy,
Nagaon District, Assam, India.
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
5. A PIED HARRIER (CIRCUS MELANOLEUCOS) ROOST IN SOHAGI-BARWA
WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, MAHARAJGANJ, UTTAR PRADESH, INDIA
On March 23, 1998 while surveying the
grasslands of Sohagi-Barwa Wildlife Sanctuary
(27° 10' to 27° 20' N & 83° 35' to 83° 50' E) in
Uttar Pradesh, I came across a roost of pied
harrier Circus melanoleucos , in what was
possibly the largest number ever reported from
India.
As I was moving through the Nagwa
grasslands I saw two male pied harriers on the
ground, about 50 m from Mankapur-Madhualia
road. It was 1730 hrs when I saw the first two
birds and as I stopped to scan the area more birds
descended on the same patch. I counted 20 birds,
3 females and 17 males. The birds I saw were
mostly close to the road, in patches where the
grass had been cut, and those which landed while
I was scanning the area. Although the grass had
been cut, it was tall enough to hide these birds,
and I suspect the harrier numbers to be much
higher, probably around 50 birds.
The grasslands of Mankapur Beat in
Nagwa Compartment 16 (Madhualia Range) are
among the largest blocks of grasslands in the
entire Sohagi-Barwa Sanctuary and are in
continuation with the Ghanshyampur grasslands
of South Chowk Range.
The pied harrier is a winter visitor to the
eastern parts of the Indian subcontinent, quite
common in Bangladesh, Pakistan, Manipur,
Assam (where it occasionally breeds), West
Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and decreasingly so down
the eastern side of the Peninsula and in small
numbers to Sri Lanka, occasionally in Kerala,
Nilgiri and Palni Hills in Tamil Nadu (Handbook,
Ali and Ripley 1987). It has been reported from
eastern districts (Balghat and Bhandara) and
northwest Madhya Pradesh (Rahmani 1988).
Vyas (1992) has reported this species from
southeast Rajasthan. Rare stragglers or vagrants
have been seen in Andhra Pradesh and
Maharashtra. It is not recorded north of Bombay
in western India, and west of the Nepal terai and
Gorakhpur district in Uttar Pradesh. In Dudwa
National Park, Uttar Pradesh, a few birds have
been seen regularly in the Madrayya region in
the last few years and near Dudwa at Kishanpur,
Katerniaghat and Pilibhit region.
These birds affect open grass patches, hills
(to c. 2,100 m - Kodaikanal), paddy fields,
stubbles and grassy margins of jheels (natural
water bodies). Though mainly extralimital in
breeding, they occasionally breed in Assam
(Dibrugarh district - Kaziranga). Narayan and
Lima (1991) have reported breeding of pied
harriers in Manas Wildlife Sanctuary and suspect
at least three breeding pairs. They also believe
that a few of these birds breed regularly in the
alluvial grasslands south of the Himalayas and
north of the Brahmaputra in lower Assam, and
possibly on islands and the southern bank of the
river in Laokhowa Wildlife Sanctuary,
Burachapuri and Kochmara reserves, Kaziranga
National Park and Majuli Is.
The pied harrier roost in Sohagi-Barwa
Wildlife Sanctuary is important on three counts.
First, it is the largest reported in India, secondly
it is further west of the reported range in Assam,
and thirdly the roost was found in a disturbed
grassland where grazing and grass cutting was
frequent. As pied harriers are an important
species of these alluvial grasslands, it is essential
to give high priority to the protection of these
grasslands. To protect pied harriers and other
such typical grassland fauna, grazing and cutting
should be checked.
Acknowledgements
I thank the Oriental Bird Club, UK, the
North Eastern Avicultural Society, USA and an
anonymous donor for supporting the swamp
francolin study under which this observation was
276
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
made. I also thank Mr. Rupak De, Conservator
of Forest, the staff of Sohagi-Barwa Wildlife
Sanctuary particularly the DFO, Mr. Sanjay
Srivastava and Range Officer, South Chowk, Mr.
V.P. Jaiswal, and Dr. Asad Rahmani, Director,
BNHS, for help and support and Dr. H.S.A. Yahya,
Chairman, Centre of Wildlife & Ornithology,
Refer
Ali, S. &S. Dillon Ripley (1987): Handbook of the birds
of India and Pakistan. Oxford, New Delhi.
Narayan, G. & L. Rosalind (1991): New record of the
pied harrier Circus melanoleucos (Pennant) breeding
in Assam duars, with a brief review of its distribution.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88(1): 30-34.
AMU for permission to conduct this study.
May 25, 1998 SALIM JAVED
Centre of Wildlife & Ornithology ,
Aligarh Muslim University,
Aligarh 202 002,
Uttar Pradesh, India.
I NCES
Rahmani, A.R. ( 1 988): A pied harrier Circus melanoleucos
in northwestern Madhya Pradesh. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 85(2): 419-420.
Vyas, R. (1992): Pied harrier Circus melanoleucos
(Pennant) in southeast Rajasthan. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 89(2): 248.
6. THE GREYHEADED LAPWING, VANELLUS CINEREUS (BLYTH)
IN KALIVELI TANK, TAMIL NADU
On January 25, 1997, I was surveying
water birds in Kaliveli Tank, a brackish wetland
on the east coast in Tamil Nadu (12° 05'-
12° 15' N, 79° 47'-79° 59' E). In the midst of two
curlews, Numenius arquata, and five large egrets,
Ardea alba, there was a grey headed wading bird
which struck me as unusual. I approached closer,
wading into the slush and watched with my
binoculars at a distance of about 20 m. It was a
greyheaded lapwing, Vanellus cinereus (Blyth).
I watched the bird feeding for two minutes and
edged closer, whereupon it took off and settled
about 100 m away. I watched it for some time
and then tried to see if there were other
individuals of the species. It was a lone bird, and
after half an hour, flew away silently. The bird
was distinguished from other lapwings by the
completely smoke-grey head and neck; yellow
beak and wattle. The primaries were black and
the tail feathers had a broad black subterminal
band. In flight, the bird spread out its tail
feathers. It was a juvenile, as the dark pectoral
band of the adults was missing (Ali and Ripley
1980).
This species is known to be a regular winter
visitor, from September-October to March-April,
to India in Assam, Manipur, North Bihar, Dehra
Dun, Rajasthan and the Andaman Islands, as
well as several places in ‘East India' (Ali and
Ripley 1980). Subramanya (1987) has recorded
this species from Bangalore. This sighting is the
second record for the species in peninsular India.
The bird was probably a vagrant, since I had not
seen it during my survey of the region in 1995-
96, nor did I record it in 1998. Perennou (1987)
and Perennou and Santharam (1990) have
conducted detailed ornithological surveys in this
region and have not come across this species.
Acknowledgements
I thank Dr. Priya Davidar, Dinesh, Karthik
and Supriya for their help during the survey.
May 25, 1998 K.S. GOPI SUNDAR
Wildlife Institute of India,
PB 18, Chandrabani, Dehra Dun 248 00 J.
Uttar Pradesh, India.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
277
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
References
Ali, S & S. Dillon Ripley ( 1 980): Handbook of the Birds
of India and Pakistan. Vol. 2. Oxford, New Delhi.
Perennou, C. (1987): Two important wetlands near
Pondicherry. Blackbuck Vol. 3(3 & 4): 3-1 1.
Perennou, C & V. Santharam (1990): An Ornithological
Survey of some wetlands in southeast Asia.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87: 354-363.
Subramanya, S. (1987): Occurrence of the Greyheaded
Lapwing, Vanellus cinereus Blyth in Bangalore.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84: 205-26.
7. RECENT SIGHTINGS OF VANELLUS GREGARIUS (PALLAS)
AT TAL CHHAPAR AND REVAS A, RAJASTHAN
The migratory lapwing Vanellus gregarius
breeds semi-colonially, chiefly in transition
zones between Stipa and Artemisia steppes, in
Russia and Kazakhstan (Collar et al. 1994). It
winters in Sudan, Eritrea, Israel, Arabian
Peninsula, Iraq, Pakistan and northwest India.
Though it is described as regular and fairly
common in Pakistan and northwest India in the
handbook (Ali and Ripley 1 980), Roberts (1991)
calls it rare in Pakistan. According to del Hoyo
et al. (1996), it is vulnerable and numbers
wintering in the Indian subcontinent probably
do not exceed 1000.
The lack of recent authentic sightings
indicates that it is rare in Rajasthan. Although
it is not recorded in the vertebrate fauna of
Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur (Vijayan et
al. 1987), all the recent sightings in Rajasthan
are from the Park, Bharatpur where its numbers
vary greatly, even being absent in certain years
(Per Undeland pers. comm.) It seems safe to
assume, therefore, that it visits Bharatpur
sporadically.
Five birds were seen foraging on October
14, 1995 at Tal Chhapar Sanctuary, Churu,
Rajasthan. The birds were exceptionally obliging
and allowed us a close approach.
The second sighting of Vanellus gregarius
at Tal Chhapar was on a cold and windy morning
on January 28, 1998. After what initially seemed
a hopeless task, we were able to discover a flock
of 15 resting birds. All the birds were well
concealed in the hoof prints of an unidentified
mammal and were reluctant to move out in the
inclement weather.
A flock of 1 1 birds were seen foraging at
Tal Chhapar on February 1, 1998. Unfortunately,
some villagers disturbed the flock and it took
off, uttering a weak call, best transcribed as reck-
reck-reck.
During these three sightings at Tal
Chhapar, the ground was dry and hard with
short grass that was almost dry. Other species
noticed in the area were the short-toed lark
Calandrella cinerea , eastern calandra lark
Melanocorypha bimaculata, and tawny pipit
An thus campestris.
A juvenile Vanellus gregarius was
recorded on January 31, 1998 at Revasa, Sikar,
Rajasthan. The bird was feeding on an
undulating grassland in the midst of mustard
fields. The ground was sandy and soft, with
traces of salt at some places, due to waterlogging.
Normal human activity was noticed in the area,
a shepherdess was tending her flock, tractors
and jeeps drove down the road passing through
the grassland. Unlike the flock seen at Tal
Chhapar on February 1, 1998, the bird was not
wary. Other species noticed in the patch were
redwattled lapwing Vanellus indicus, common
sandgrouse Pterocles exustus, eastern calandra
lark Melanocorypha bimaculata , crested lark
Galerida cristata and desert wheatear Oenanthe
deserti.
278
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2). AUG. 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Acknowledgements
Many thanks to Harshvardhan for
travelling with me and photographing the bird,
and to Per Undeland who travelled with me to
the remote areas of Sikar and Churn districts in
search of Vanellus gregarius. Without his help
Refer
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1980): Handbook of the Birds of
India and Pakistan, Vol. 2. 2nd Edn. Oxford
University Press, Delhi.
Collar, N.J., M.J. Crosby & A.J. Stattersfield(1994):
Birds to Watch, BirdLife International, Cambridge.
del Hoyo, J., A. Elliot & J. Sargatal (eds) (1996):
Handbook of the Birds of the World, Vol. 3. Lynx
and the unending discussions, this note would
be so much the poorer.
June 25, 1998 HARKIRAT SINGH SANGHA
B-27, Gautam Marg,
Hanuman Nagar, Jaipur 302 021 ,
Rajasthan, India.
NCES
Edicions, Barcelona.
Roberts, T.J. (1991): The Birds of Pakistan, Vol. 1 , Oxford
University Press, Karachi.
Vijayan, V.S. (Ed.) (1987): Vertebrate Fauna ofKeoladeo
National Park, Bharatpur. Report of Keoladeo
National Park Ecology Project, Bombay Natural
History Society, Bombay.
8. ADDITIONAL SIGHT RECORDS OF SLENDERBILLED GULL
LARUS GENET FROM GUJARAT
The slenderbilled gull Larus genei Breme
is considered to be a winter visitor to the west
coast, west to Sindh, Gujarat and Bombay (Ali
and Ripley 1983). Except for one specimen
collected by Dharmakumarsinhji (1955) near
Bhavnagar, the species was not recorded either
from Kachchh (Palin and Lester 1904, Ali 1945)
or from mainland Gujarat. However, Mundkur
etal. ( 1 988) have reported sighting of the species
from several locations around the Gulf of
Kachchh and opined that it is a common winter
visitor there.
We too have seen this species at several
places in fairly good numbers around the Gulf
of Kachchh (Table 1). We have also recorded it
repeatedly from Porbander (east coast of
Saurashtra) and Bhavnagar (Gulf of Khambat),
suggesting that it is common on the Gujarat coast
in general. This supports the views of Mundkur
et ah (1988).
At Jakhau, the slenderbilled gull along
with the lesser blackbacked gull Larus fuscus and
herring gull Larus argentatus was seen resting
and occasionally feeding on the fishes drying on
Table 1
RECORDS OF SLENDERBILLED GULL FROM
GUJARAT COAST
S. No.
Site
No. of birds
Date
1.
Narayan Sarovar
50
26.ix.1992
2.
Jakhau
5000
25.ix.1992
3.
Surajbari
4
4.x. 1991
4.
Pirotan Island
A few
8.iii. 1 980
5.
Charakla Salt Pans
129
28.xii.1996
6.
Okha
2
28.xii.1996
7.
Harshad Dam
2
30.xii . 1 996
8.
Porbander Bird Sanctuary 3
2.iv.l996
9.
Porbander Bird Sanctuary 6
31 .xii.1996
10.
Porbander Salt Pans
6
27.iv.1997
11.
Porbander Salt Pans
36
15. vi. 1997
12.
Bhavnagar Port
2
31 .xii.1995
the ground. At Narayan Sarovar, the birds were
seen flying above the creek. At Charakla salt
pans, they were swimming along with
blacknecked grebes Podiceps nigricollis. At
Porbander, the birds were seen both in the
sanctuary area and salt pans. Records of this gull
during April and June at Porbander also support
the view of Mundkur et al ( 1988) that it may be
nesting within our limits, or that the non-
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
279
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
breeding individuals tend to stay over within our
limits.
The available data and our own intensive
studies on the coast of Gujarat suggest that the
gull is quite abundant on the Gulf of Kachchh,
but not so on the Gulf of Khambat. One of us
(Parasharya 1984) studied the coastal avifauna
near Bhavnagar and Ghogha during 1979 to
1983, but had seen it only once. It is possible
that the species wras overlooked because of its
similarities with the blackheaded gull Lams
ridibundus in winter plumage (Ali and Ripley
1983, Mundkur et al. 1988). Hence, a careful
survey of the Gulf of Khambat might yield a few
more sightings.
Refer
Ali, S. (1945): The Birds ofKutch. Oxford, Bombay.
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of
India and Pakistan. Compact edition, Oxford
University Press, Delhi.
Dharmakumarsinhji, K.S. (1955): Birds of Saurashtra.
Times of India, Bombay.
Mundkur, T., L.M. Raol & S.N . Varu ( 1 988): Distribution
of the slenderbilled gull {Lams genei Breme) in
ACKNOWLEDG EM ENTS
We thank Dr. D.N. Yadav, Officer-m-
Charge for constant encouragement, and the
Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New
Delhi for financial support.
July 24, 1 998 B.M. PARASHARYA
K.L. MATHEW
A.G. SUKHADIA
AESHITA MUKHERJEE
AINP on Agricultural Ornithology,
Gujarat Agricultural University,
Anand 388 1 JO,
Gujarat, India.
E N C E S
the Gulf of Kachchh, Gujarat. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 85(2): 420-422.
Palin, H. & C.D. Lester (1904): The Birds ofCutch. The
Times Press, Bombay.
Parasharya, B.M. (1984): Studies on the coastal birds and
their marine habitat with a special emphasis on the
biology of the Indian Reef Heron. Ph.D. thesis,
Saurashtra University, Rajkot.
9. MULTIPLE BROODING OF THE LITTLE BROWN DOVE
STREPTOPELIA SENEGALENSIS
An instance of multiple brooding by a pair
of little brown doves, Streptopelia senegalensis
Linn, and their incubation rhythm was observed
in Bharatpur, Rajasthan, India in 1987-1988.
Though multiple brooding is reported in most of
the columbids (Westmoreland et al. 1986)
including Streptopelia senegalensis (Ali and
Ripley 1983), frequent and continuous brooding
by Streptopelia senegalensis is so far not
reported. The little brown dove reportedly raises
two or more broods (Ali and Ripley 1983).
Columbids produce food (crop milk) for
the young nestlings in vivo and feed older
nestlings a diverse diet of seeds. Thus, breeding
need not be synchronized with the availability
of a particular food. The resultant protracted
breeding season has led to a propensity for
multiple brooding. Predation, probably, is of
secondary importance in the evolution of
columbid reproductive strategy (Westmoreland
et al. 1986).
A pair of little brown doves was observed
attempting nest construction over an electric bulb
hidden behind a stone pillar on the verandah of
my house. The adult birds brought the nesting
materials for three days, but could not succeed
as there was nothing to hold the nesting materials
intact. To help them, I made a cup-like structure
with split bamboo sticks and tied it above the
electric bulb. Being disturbed, the birds moved
to the neighbouring garden about 1 0 m away and
made a nest in a Capparis sepiaria bush. Later,
280
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
the nest with the eggs was blown away in a dust
storm.
A few days later on April 27, 1987, the
adults came back and occupied the nest made
with bamboo sticks. From April 1987 to March
1988, the same pair of birds used the nest nine
times successively for nesting. The nesting was
a complete success five times. The eggs were
preyed upon once and the hatchlings died on
three occasions. Multiple brooding details are
given in Table 1 .
Nesting behaviour: Both male and female
birds actively participated in nest construction.
The nest building was carried out for 2 to 3 hrs
daily during the day time i.e. 0800 to 0900 hrs
in the morning and 1500 to 1600 hrs in the
evening. It was noticed that very little nest
material was brought (5 to 10 twigs) when an
old nest was reused.
Egg laying behaviour: On each nesting
occasion, except the second time when only one
egg was laid, the eggs were usually laid on
succeeding days. If the first egg was laid in the
evening the second was laid on the third day (as
in the first nest). On all the occasions, except
the first and the last, the time lag between first
and second egg laying was one day. After laying
the first egg, the female left the nest, leaving the
egg unguarded. The incubation started
immediately after the second egg was laid and
thereafter the eggs were never left unguarded;
except for a very short duration when the birds
changed incubation duty.
Incubation pattern: The adult bird was
colour marked while it was incubating. The
underside of the tail feather was marked with
Indian ink without catching and disturbing the
bird. This was done by hiding beneath the nest
and marking the underside of the tail feather with
a swab dipped in Indian ink. This mark was
visible clearly as the underside of the tail feather
was white. It was noticed in the preceding nesting
that the marked adult was a male. The unmarked
adult was noticed laying the egg while the
marked male usually incubated the egg during
the day. The adult female incubated the eggs
during the night and hence incubated for a longer
duration. The change of incubating birds was
Table 1
DETAILS OF THE MULTIPLE BROODING OF STREPTOPELIA SENEGALENSIS
S. No.
Date occupied
Date of nest
construction
First egg
Second egg
Hatching
date
Leaving date
of fledgling
Remark
1
27/04/87
29/04/87
02/05/87
04/05/87
1 7/05/87 &
18/05/87
01/06/87
Success
2
03/06/87
03/06/87
05/06/87
nil
19/06/87
05/07/87
Success
3
06/07/87
1 0/07/87
12/07/87
13/07/87
26/07/87
07/08/87
Success
4
08/08/87
11/08/87
16/08/87
17/08/87
01/09/87
nil
Died on 3rd day
5
04/09/87
28/09/87
01/10/87
02/10/87
15/10/87 &
16/10/87
30/10/87
Success
6
01/11/87
15/11/87
20/11/87
21/11/87
nil
nil
Preyed at egg
stage
7
11/12/87
17/01/88
20/01/88
21/01/88
03/02/88 &
04/02/88
nil
Died on 4th day
8
08/02/88
13/02/88
15/02/88
16/02/88
29/02/88
nil
Died on 5th day
9
06/03/88
08/03/88
10/03/88
1 3/02/88
25/03/88
09/04/88
Success
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
281
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
observed between 0800 to 0900 hrs and 1500 to
1 600 hrs depending on the season.
The fully fledged young ones left the nest
after 9 to 12 days. The total incubation period
was 13 to 14 days; a single nesting cycle (from
the first egg laying to fledging) was 24 to 26
days. Nene (1979) reported the incubation period
of the little brown dove as 13 to 14 days and the
full fledged young ones left the nest after 12 to
16 days.
Renesting: It was observed that the nest
occupation and construction varied between 0 to
24 days. The next nest occupation occurred
within one to two days after fledging (Table 1).
The nest construction was completed within two
to five days. In mourning doves, after a nesting
failure, the period until a new clutch is begun
ranges from 2 to 25 days, the most frequent time
interval being 6 days. Multiple brooding has been
reported in mourning doves Zenaida macroura ,
which often attempts three to six clutches per
breeding season (Hansen and Kossack 1963). By
reusing old nests, columbids eliminate the time
and energy required for building the nest.
Mourning doves reuse nests in 35-48% of nesting
attempts, but this does not improve nesting
success. It is plausible that nest range evolved to
reduce time intervals between nesting cycles
(McClure 1950, Harris et al. 1963,
Westmoreland et al. 1986). The reuse of an old
nest twice by little brown dove has been recorded
by Nene (1979), when the nest was reoccupied
by adults within five to six days.
Individual columbids may eliminate
nesting intervals by overlapping nesting cycles
i.e. simultaneously caring for two sets of offspring
at different stages of development (Murton and
Issacson 1962, Burley 1980). But in the present
study, the little brown dove did not have
overlapping nesting cycles. It was observed that
the same adult pairs reused the nest again and
again. The faecal pellets of young ones piled
inside the cup-like nest which finally became a
platform.
Ali and Ripley (1983) reported that the
breeding season of little brown dove is not
defined, practically all year, chiefly January to
October. Multiple brooding without overlapping
is observed and one of the adults was sometimes
noticed caring for the young ones as the other
one started occupying the nest (1st, 2nd, 3rd and
5th nests).
In birds, the main moult generally follows
the breeding season. The burden on the protein
reserves of the birds for replacing the feathers is
generally too high to accomplish at the same time
as breeding. Only with abundant food supply do
the two processes seem to occur simultaneously,
as in many pigeons (Murton et al. 1974). The
present study on Streptopelia senegalensis
showed that adult birds were very weak with
arrested moult, probably due to continuous
brooding.
Acknowledgements
I thank Dr. N.K. Ramachandran, Wildlife
Institute of India, for his help in diverse ways. I
thank Mr. J.C. Daniel and Dr. R. Sugathan for
constant encouragement.
May 25, 1998 M. JOHN GEORGE
Department of Zoology,
Mar Thoma College,
Perumbavoor 683 542,
Kerala, India.
References
Ali, S. & S. D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the birds of alternative and complementary reproductive tactics.
India and Pakistan. Compact edition. Oxford Amer. Natur. 1 1 5: 223-246.
University Press, New Delhi. Hansen, H.C. & C.W. Kossack (1963): The Mourning
Burley, N. (1980): Clutch overlap and clutch size: Doves in Illinois, Springfield. Illinois Dept. Comer.
282
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Tech. Bull. No. 2.
Harris, S.W., M.A. Morse & W.H. Longley
(1963): Nesting and production of Mourning
Dove in Minnesota. Amer. Midi. Natur. 69: ISO-
172.
McClure, H.E. (1950): An eleven year summary of
Mourning Dove observation in the west. Trans.
North Amer. Wildl. Conf. 15: 335-346.
Murton, R.K. & A.J. Issacson (1962): The functional basis
of some behaviour in the Wood Pigeon Columba
palumbus. Ibis 104: 503-521.
Murton, R.K., N.J. Westwood & A.J. Issacson (1974):
Factors affecting egg-weight, body-weight and
moult of the Wood Pigeon Columba palumbus. Ibis
116: 52-73.
Nene, R.V. (1979): Incubation and incubation period in
the little brown dove Streptopelia senegalensis.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76(2): 362.
Westmoreland, D., L.B. Best & D.E. Blockstein (1986):
Multiple brooding as a productive strategy: time
conserving adaptations in Mourning Doves. Auk 103:
196-203.
10. ASHY MINIVET PERICROCOTUS DIVARICATUS (RAFFLES) IN KANHA
NATIONAL PARK, MANDLA DISTRICT, MADHYA PRADESH
We were watching a mixed hunting party
of birds during a nature trail near Kisli Gate, in
Kanha National Park (Mandla district, Madhya
Pradesh), early in the morning, on March 19,
1998, when we saw a grey and white minivet,
perched right at the top of a sal Shorea robusta.
Through the binoculars, we saw a long-tailed,
bulbul sized bird, which had a prominent white
forehead and a very small supercilium. It was
otherwise grey on top and on the wings, and
white below, immediately recognized as a female
minivet Pericrocotus divaricatus — the white
forehead being the characteristic feature of this
bird and a total lack of any red, orange or pink
in its plumage, being the other. We got a very
good view as the bird was perched in full sunlight
and ‘co-operated’ for at least three to five minutes
before it flew off, when we saw some white in its
wings. This is the first record of an ashy minivet
for Kanha and also the first for Madhya Pradesh.
The only other reports of ashy minivet have
been from the Andaman Islands (Butler 1899),
Refer
Butler, A.L. ( 1 899): The Birds of the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12(2): 386-403.
Khacher, Lavkumar (1994): Ashy minivet Pericrocotus
divaricatus (Raffles) in Himachal Pradesh. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 91(2): 321.
Navarro, S.J. (1965): The ashy minivet Pericrocotus
divaricatus (Raffles): An addition to the Indian
Karnala, Maharashtra [3 1 .i. 1 965 (Navarro
1965)]; Madras, Tamil Nadu [9.xii.l984
(Santharam 1985, 1986, 1988, 1990)]; Thekkady
in Periyar Sanctuary, Kerala [ 1 7 .xii. 1989
(Robertson 1992)]; Himachal Pradesh
[22.iii.1993 (Khacher 1994)]. Ours is, therefore,
only the sixth record of the bird from India. In
Madras, however, it is being seen regularly by
Dr. Santharam in December and January in the
Guindy National Park and Theosophical Society
Estate.
April 3, 1998 AASHEESH PITTIE
8-2-545 Road No. 7,
Banjara Hills ,
Hyderabad 500 034 ,
Andhra Pradesh, India.
AMITABH PODDAR
187/7, 6th ‘A ’ Cross,
Rajmahal Vilas Extension,
Bangalore 560 080,
Karnataka, India.
e n c e s
avifauna. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 62(2): 303.
Robertson, Andrew (1992): Occurrence of the ashy
minivet Pericrocotus divaricatus (Raffles) in Kerala.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88(3): 455-456.
Santharam, V. (1985): New Records: Ashy minivet and
eyebrowed thrush. Blackbuck 1(1): 27-29.
Santharam, V. (1986): Letters: The Ashy Minivet-II.
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
283
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Blackbuck 2(1): 30. India). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85(2): 430-43 1 .
Santharam, V. ( 1 988): Occurrence of the Ashy Mini vet Santharam, V. ( 1 990): The ashy mini vet. Blackbuck 6(2):
(Pericrocotus divaricatus ) in Madras city (South 10-11.
1 1 . REDVENTED BULBUL PYCNONOTUS CAFER FEEDING ON TAIL OF HOUSE
GECKO HEMIDA CTYL US FLA VIVIRIDIS
On July 26, 1990, while on duty in the
World Forestry Arboretum, Jaipur, Rajasthan, at
about 0900 hrs I observed a redvented bulbul
(Pycnonotus cafer ) repeatedly attacking a house
gecko Hemidactylus flaviviridis on an external
wall of my office building. To escape from danger,
the gecko moved fast on the wall and tried to
seek a safer place. After a few seconds, the gecko
broke off its tail to divert the attention of the
bulbul. The wriggling tail drew the attention of
the bulbul immediately and soon the bird started
feeding on it. Within five minutes, the bulbul
completely devoured the tail and flew away.
According to Ali and Ripley (handbook of
THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN, 1983) the
redvented bulbul mainly feeds on fruits, berries,
flower nectar, and insects. There is one report of
parent bulbuls feeding their nestling on young
Calotes versicolor (Richards, JBNHS 25: 503).
Feeding on the tail of a house gecko by an adult
bulbul is quite unusual.
August 21,1998 SATISH KUMAR SH ARM A
Aravalli Afforestation Project,
Jhadol (F.), Udaipur 313 702,
Rajasthan, India.
12. COMMENTS ON THE BIRD LIST OF THATTAKAD BIRD SANCTUARY, KERALA
In his paper on the Birds of Thattakad Bird
Sanctuary (JBNHS 93(3): 487-506), R. Sugathan
has included two species of birds which are
unlikely to be seen in Thattakad.
The rufousbellied plaintive cuckoo
(Cacomantis merulinus) — No. 87 — has been
recorded only in northeastern India with a few
records west from Bhutan and West Bengal
(synopsis, Ripley 1982). Earlier, the Indian
plaintive cuckoo was considered only a
subspecies (passerinus) of Cacomantis
merulinus and in his birds of kerala (1969),
Salim Ali has referred to the Indian plaintive
cuckoo by its old nomenclature. However, in
1951, Biswas (Ibis 93: 596-598) has shown that
these two were indeed distinct species. These
were then renamed Indian plaintive cuckoo
(Cacomantis passerinus) and rufousbellied
plaintive cuckoo (Cacomantis merulinus) and
have since been accepted by Salim All and
S. Dillon Ripley. I wonder if the inclusion of
the rufousbellied plaintive cuckoo in the
Thattakad list was through an oversight.
The green munia (Estrilda formosa) — No.
264 — is restricted in its distribution to central
India (synopsis, Ripley 1982). It has been
included in a book of kerala birds Neelakantan
(1993), with a question mark, based on a sight
record from Wynaad. Its presence in Kerala is
very unlikely, unless these were escaped cage
birds.
The list also includes some birds for which
additional notes on identification, sighting dates
could have been given. For example, the two
grasshopper warblers (Locustella spp.) — Nos.
2 1 8 & 2 19 — are said to be very difficult to locate
and identify in the field. Have these species been
mist-netted to clinch the identification? I also
feel that the two species — jungle wren-warbler
(Prinia sylvatica) and white throated munia
(Lonchura malabarica) — Nos. 216 & 264 —
are rather unusual records as these are birds of
drier habitats (See habitat description in birds
of kerala).
284
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2), AUG. 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
October 10, 1997 V. SANTHARAM
68, First Floor,
Santhome High Road,
Chennai 600 028,
Tamil Nadu, India.
Editor’s Note: R. Sugathan, who was sent
a copy of this note, writes as follows:
In this regard I had written a letter on July
3, 1997, to the Editor, JBNHS saying that
No. 87, rufousbellied plaintive cuckoo
( Cacomantis merulinus) included in our bird list
is an error. What was meant was Cacomantis
merulinus passerinus.
The green munia (Estrilda formosa) is
recorded frpm Thattakad in small numbers. The
identification was confirmed by mist-netting the
birds. For two consecutive years, we have been
seeing around seven birds in our regular bird
census. To clarify any doubt two of them were
netted, examined and their identity confirmed. I
never came across this species anywhere in my
bird survey in Kerala except at Thattakad. That
is why it was included in our list. It is possible
that they are escapees.
The grasshopper warblers Locustella
certhiola and L. naevia were caught by mist-net
from Thattakad and their identity confirmed.
13. GANGES SOFT-SHELL TURTLE ASPIDERETUS GANGETICUS
PREDATING ON NILGAI BOSELAPHUS TRAGOCAMELUS
IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR, RAJASTHAN
On July 1, 1999, in the afternoon, while
carrying out vulture survey in the Park, we saw
a nilgai Boselaphus tragocamelus (Family
Bovidae), in the Ghana Canal of the Park. The
canal had shallow water but thick muddy silt.
The nilgai was finding it difficult to walk and
was struggling to get out. We noticed two big
soft-shell turtles Aspideretus gangeticus (Family
Trionychidae) pulling the nilgai down whenever
it tried to get up. There were turtles all over,
biting off chunks of flesh from the flanks,
abdomen and legs. There was blood all over as
the turtles had pulled out the entrails of the
antelope. The nilgai kept up the struggle for more
than an hour and a half, and finally it succumbed
to its injuries. The forest guards tried to chase
the turtles, but in vain.
The Ganges soft-shell turtles are known
to be carnivorous and are attracted to rotting flesh
(Daniel 1983). They take a wide range of food
from vegetable to animal matter.They have been
recorded taking waterfowl, millipedes, fish and
flapshell turtles alive and scavenging on dead
fish and mammals (Daniel 1983, Das 1985,
Bhupathy 1990). We have not come across any
reference in literature to the turtle actively
predating on a live large mammal and we think
it is worth recording. Probably, the nilgai was
injured and the turtles were attracted to the smell
ofblood.
July 9, 1999 GARGI
RANDHEERA SINGH
Bombay Natural Histoiy Society,
Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.
Present Address: BNHS Field Station.
Project on Effect of Environmental
Contamination on Raptors,
331, Rajendra Nagar,
Bharatpur 321 001 ,
Rajasthan, India.
References
Bhupathy, S. ( 1 990): Observation on the food of the Ganges Daniel, J.C. ( 1 983): The Book of Indian Reptiles. Bombay
soft-shell Turtle Trionyx gangeticus in Keoladeo Natural History Society. Bombay.
National Park, Bharatpur. Das, I. (1985): Indian Turtle, a field guide, WWF, Calcutta.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
285
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
14. STRANGE DEATH OF A SNAKE
On May 27, 1999 while watching grizzled
giant squirrels ( Ratufa macroura) in Chinnar
Wildlife Sanctuary, I saw a dead snake lying
entangled among the branches of a tamarind tree.
At my request, the ‘Hill Pulaya’ accompanying
me climbed the tree and brought the snake down.
It must have been dead for at least a couple of
weeks and was absolutely dry. Stuck in its mouth
was a large Calotes calotes, about 40 cm in
length (including tail) that had been almost
completely swallowed. The hot dry climate of
Chinnar — in May, day temperature reaches
38 °C — had mummified the snake and its prey.
The snake was identified as Dendrelaphis
tristis (Family Colubridae). Its total length was
78 cm. The lizard could be seen clearly through
the tautly stretched skin of the snake’s neck
region. Even the white bands on the lizard’s
green body were visible through the snake’s
stretched skin. The 20 cm long tail and the hind
legs of the lizard were sticking out of the snake’s
mouth. The snake and its prey were remarkably
undamaged. Two claws of the lizard’s hind limb
were stuck in the comer of the snake’s mouth,
and probably during its effort to regurgitate the
prey, the claws of its right forelimb also
penetrated the snake’s gullet and skin, resulting
in the death of the snake.
Behura (JBNHS 50(1): 183) mentions a
Xenochrophis piscator dying in a pond as a result
of ‘swallowing a 8. 1 inch long fish’ and probably
getting the pectoral spines of the fish stuck in its
mouth, so that it could not be swallowed or
regurgitated. Snakes rarely choke to death on prey,
for they can extend their wind pipe along the floor
of the mouth to breathe during feeding, and also,
they seldom tackle animals too big to swallow.
March 3, 2000 V.P. AJITH
Panikaseril House,
Kodungallur P.O., Pin 680 664,
Kerala, India.
15. SIZE ANALYSIS AND DISTRIBUTION OF JERDON’S BULL FROG
HOPLOBATRACHUS CRASSUS (JERDON 1835) IN ASSAM
Hoplobatrachus crassus , a close relative
of H. tigerinus (Family Ranidae), was recently
reported from northeastern India by Bordoloi and
Bora (1999). Earlier, the easternmost limit of
distribution of H. crassus was West Bengal
(Sarkar et al. 1992). It is possible that previous
workers confused the two congeners and failed
to record the former from parts of its range
(Daniel 1975). The present communication deals
with the distribution of H. crassus in Assam and
provides a comparison of morphometric features
of these two species.
Specimens of Hoplobatrachus crassus and
H. tigerinus were collected using visual encounter
surveys. A total of 73 man-hours were spent in
collecting 23 adult (15 d and 8 9)//. crassus and
49 adult (27 d and 22 9 ) H. tigerinus during the
breeding season (April to September, 1998). The
date and time of collection, habitat and micro-
habitat, and weather conditions were noted. Each
specimen was measured for morphometric ana-
lysis. Statistical analysis (t tests) were carried out.
Hoplobatrachus crassus has a wide
distribution in the Brahmaputra Valley of Assam,
up to an altitude of 180 m above msl. It is most
abundant in the flood plains, especially in
waterlogged agricultural fields. Of 23 specimens
collected, 12 were from paddy fields, 5 from wet
grasslands, 3 from sugarcane fields, 2 from oxbow
lakes locally known as beels and one from a moist
open field with short broad-leaved grass. It was
found on both banks of the Brahmaputra river:
Sibsagar, Golaghat, Kamrup, Goalpara, Barpeta,
Nalbari, Darang, Sonitpur and Lakhimpur.
286
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Table 1 Table 2
MORPHOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS (IN MM) OF MORPHOMETRIC RATIOS OF HOPLOBA TRACHUS
HOPLOBA TRA CHUS CRASSUS (±SD) CRASS US AN D HOPLOBA TRA CHUS TIGERINUS
SVL
76.4 ±7.7
H. crassus
H. tigerinus
HL
23.5 ±2.0
HW
26.1 ±2.15
HL : SVL
0.31 ±0.01
0.34 ±0.03**
HD
16.8 ±2.13
HL: HW
0.9 ±0.03
0.98 ±0.11*
SL
1 1.4 ±1.5
HL: HD
1.41 ±0.01
1.53 ±0.22
EN
5.7 ±1.2
SL: HL
0.48 ±0.4
1.51 ±0.04
NS
4.6 ±0.6
EN : SL
0.50 ±0.05
0.46 ±0.04
IN
3.8 ±0.6
ED : HL
0.29 ±0.02
0.28 ±0.05
ED
6.8 ±0.59
ED: EN
1.24 ±0.23
1.17 ±0. 1 5
HTYD
4.7 ±0.6
IN : ED
0.55 ±0.08
0.59 ±0.10
VTYD
4.9 ±0.45
HTYD : ED
0.70 ±0.09
0.79 ±0.1 9
TBL
27.3 ±3.4
HTYD : VTYD
0.98 ±0.09
0.99 ±0.07
T4
32.5 ±3.7
TBL: SVL
0.36 ±0.02
0.45 ±0.05**
IMT
4.5 ±0.5
IMT : T4
0.1 4 ±0.02
0.10 ±0.02**
* P<0.10(± tests); ** P<0.05
SVL = Snout vent length, HL = Head length, HW = Head width, HD = Head depth, SL = Snout length, ES = Eye nostril length,
ED = Eye diameter, 10 = Inter orbital space, NS = Nostril snout length, IN = Intranasal space, HTYD = Horizontal tympanum
diameter, VTYD = Vertical tympanum diameter, TL = Tibia length, IMT = Inner metatarsal tubercles, TBL = Tibia length,
T . = 4th toe.
4
Hoplobatrachus crassus was reported only
recently from Gohpur (92° 21' E and 26° 31' N),
Assam (Bordoloi and Bora, 1999) and earlier
workers failed to record it despite several surveys
(Annandale 1915, Romer 1949, Smith 1929,
Chanda 1994). The present study bridges the gap
between West Bengal and Gohpur and reports a
range extension of c. 1 50 km to the northeast.
The morphometric analyses (Table 1 and 2)
of Hoplobatrachus crassus and H. tigerinus reveal
significant variation only in the relative shape and
length of head, tibia and inner metatarsal tubercles.
The length of head and tibia of H. tigerinus are
significantly higher (P < 0.05) than those of
H. crassus, while the latter has larger inner
metatarsal tubercle (P < 0.05) than the former.
Further, the head length: head width ratio is also
significantly higher (P < 0. 10) in H. tigerinus. All
other relative measurements did not exhibit any
significant difference (Table 2).
Because of several shared external features,
H. crassus was considered a subspecies of
H tigerinus by Boulenger (1920) and Kirtisinghe
(1957). Bhaduri (1944) stated that unless an
intergrade between these two could be discovered,
H. crassus should be considered a distinct species.
Dutta (1997) reported some morphologically
intermediate specimens from southern India. The
present study provides morphometric analyses for
these two conspecifics and it is suggested that
H. crassus can be differentiated from H. tigerinus
by its brownish dorsum with long pleat-like folds;
short snout, head and tibia; and large shovel-like
inner metatarsal tubercles as opposed to a greenish-
yellow dorsum with shorter folds; comparatively
larger snout head and tibia and digit-like inner
metatarsal tubercle.
Note: The specimens CND 79722, CND
79733, CND 79734, CDN 79735, MDT 6974, MDT
6977, MDT 7978, GOAL 7982, GOAL 898 1 , GOAL
8985, GOAL 8986, BDO 6973, BDO 6974, BDO
6975, KUR 698 1 , KUR 6982, KUR 6983, KUR 6984,
KUR 6985, KUR 6986, KUR 6987, KUR 6988 are
registered in the museum of Zoology Department,
Arya Vidyapeeth College, Guwahati.
February 16, 2000 S. SAIKIA
N.K. CHOUDHURY
B. HUSSAIN
S. SENGUPTA
Department of Zoology',
Arya Vidyapeeth College,
Guwahati 781 016, Assam, India.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
287
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
References
Annandale, N. (1915): Herpetological notes and
description. Rec. Indian Mus. II: 341-347.
Bhaduri, J.L. ( 1 944): A note on Rana crassa Jerdon, with
extension of its range. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 44:
481-483.
Bordoloi, S.C. & M.M. Bora (1999): First record of
Hoplobatrachus crassus (Jerdon 1853) from
northeastern region in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 96: 158-159.
Boulenger, G. A. ( 1 920): A monograph of the South Asian,
Papuan, Melanesian and Australian frog of the genus
Rana. Rec. Indian Mus. 20: 1 7-20.
Chanda, S.K. ( 1 994): Anura (Amphibia) of northern India.
Mem. Zool. Surv. India. 18: 1-143.
Daniel, J.C. (1975): Field guide to the amphibians of
western India. Part III. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12:
506-522.
Dutta, S.K. (1997): Amphibians of India and Sri Lanka
(Checklist & Bibliography). Odyssey Publishing
House, Bhubaneswar, India.
Kirtisinghe, P. ( 1 957): The Amphibia of Ceylon. (Privately
Published). Colombo.
Romer, J.D. (1949): Herpetological observation in Assam
and Bengal. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48: 374-376.
Sarkar, A.K., M.L. Biswas & S. Ray (1992): Fauna of
West Bengal: Amphibia. State Fauna Series,
Zoological Survey of India, 3: 67- 1 00.
Smith, M.A. (1929): On a collection of amphibians and
reptiles from the upper reaches of Brahmaputra. Rec.
Indian Mus. 31: 71 -SO.
16. FIRST RECORD OF THE SUNFISH RANZANIA LAEVIS (PENNANT)
(PISCES : OSTEICHTHYES : PERCIFORMES : MOLIDAE)
FROM THE WEST BENGAL COAST
A juvenile Ranzania laevis (Pennant) was
caught in a trawl net on November 28, 1998,
approximately 2 km offshore from Sankarpur
harbour at Medinipur (= Midnapore) coast of
West Bengal (21° 36’ N, 87° 30' E) in the Bay of
Bengal. The specimen (Regn No. MARC/ZSI/
87) measured 494 mm in standard length.
Depth of body 50.8%, head 37.65% in
standard length, diameter of eye 15.05% in
head length. Mouth aperture wide, measured
24 mm (vertical) and 13 mm (horizontal). Fin
formula D.16, A. 16, P.13, C.21, Pelvic fins
absent.
Fraser-Brunner (1951) has reported its
occurrence in all seas except polar seas. At the
same time, he stated that the species is rather
rare and its occurrence unpredictable. The
sunfish ( R . laevis ) is distributed in tropical and
subtropical waters of the Atlantic, Indian and
Pacific Oceans (Nelson 1984). Chhapgar (1964)
reported Ranzania truncata (Retzius) from the
Mumbai (formerly Bombay) coast. In 1776,
Pennant first described the sunfish as Ostracion
laevis , and in 1785, Retzius described the
sunfish as Tetraodon truncatus (op. cit. Fraser-
Brunner 1951). Further, in 1798 Pennant
described a specimen from Sri Lanka (formerly
Ceylon) as Balistes truncatus (op. cit.
Deraniyagala 1944). However, all the species
were further synonymised as Ranzania laevis
(op. cit. Fraser-Brunner 1951). Fraser-Brunner
(1951) and Fischer and Bianchi (1984) stated
that laevis is the only species under the genus
Ranzania. Hence, the specimen described as
R. truncatus (Retzius) by Chhapgar (1964) is
the same species as R. laevis. Three more
specimens of R. laevis were captured from the
west coast of Sri Lanka (op. cit. Deraniyagala
1944). They were reported in 1798, 1911 and
1941 by Pennant, Pearson and Deraniyagala
respectively, of which one was recorded from
Katys harbour which is nearer the Indian coast.
Scott (1983) in FAO species identification sheets
(op. cit. Fischer and Bianchi 1984) mentioned
the occurrence of the species only in fishing
areas 34 and 51. Talwar et al. (1992) did not
mention its occurrence from the coastal waters
of West Bengal.
288
JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2). AUG. 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Hence, this is the first occurrence of R.
laevis not only from coastal West Bengal, but
from the entire east coast of India.
Acknowledgement
We thank the Director, Zoological Survey
of India, for permission to carry out the
work.
Refer
Chhapgar, B.F. ( 1 964): Occurrence of the oblong sunfish
(Ranzania truncata Retzius) in Bombay waters.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61: 453-456, Fig. 1.
Deraniyagala, P.E.P. (1944): Some whale sharks and
sunfishes captured off Ceylon. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 44(3): 427-430, pi. 1, Fig. 2.
Fischer, W. & G. Bianchi (1984): FAO species
identification sheets for fishery purposes. Western
Indian Ocean (Fishing area 51) (FAO: Rome). Vol. III.
September 22, 1999 S. KAR
R. CHAKRABORTY
Zoological Survey of India
F.P.S. Bldg, 27 Jawaharlal Nehru Road,
Calcutta 700 016, West Bengal, India.
S. MITRA
T.K. CHATTERJEE
Marine Aquarium cum Research Centre,
Digha, Medinipur, West Bengal, India.
NCES
Fraser-Brunner, A. ( 1 95 1 ): The Ocean Sunfishes (Family:
Molidae). Bull. Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist. (Zool.) 1(6):
89-121.
Nelson, J.S. ( 1 984): Fishes of the World. John Wiley and
Sons, New York, p. 523.
Talwar, P.K., P. Mukherjee, D. Saha, S.N. Paul & S. Kar
(1992): Marine and estuarine fishes. Zool. Surv. India:
State Fauna Series 3: Fauna of West Bengal (Part 2):
243-342.
17. FISHES OF CHIMMONY AND PEECHI-VAZHANI WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES,
KERALA, INDIA
( With one text-figure)
The Western Ghats immediately south of
the Palghat gap are topographically complex and
among the most heterogeneous areas in the
entire Western Ghats with regard to bio-climatic
zones, forest vegetation and endemic species
(Nair 1991). Only by taking into consideration
the complex topography of Parambikulam,
Peechi-Vazhani and Chimmony Wildlife
Sanctuaries in Kerala with the adjacent
Anamalai Wildlife Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu can
the full potential of this tract be realized. The
fish fauna of Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary
was reported by Biju et al. ( 1 999). So far, nobody
had studied the Peechi-Vazhani and Chimmony
Wildlife Sanctuaries. The present survey
indicates the diversity of the fish fauna in these
Sanctuaries.
Chimmony Wildlife Sanctuary: The
Chimmony Wildlife Sanctuary is situated in
Mukundapuram taluka in Thrissur district (10°
22'-10° 29' N and 76° 25'-76° 34' E). This
Sanctuary is a stretch of forest comprising of
mainly evergreen forests, moist teak forests and
moist mixed deciduous forests. The Chimmony
Sanctuary, along the southwestern flanks of the
Nelliampathies contiguous with and further south
of Peechi extending east to Parambikulam, was
declared as a Wildlife Sanctuary in August 1 984.
The Sanctuary area ranges in altitude from 50 to
1,116m above msl (Nair 1991). The Chimmony
Sanctuary is separated from the Parambikulam
Sanctuary to its east by a stretch of forest along
the catchment area of Kannankuzhithodu in
Kodassery Reserve Forest.
Peechi-Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary: The
Peechi-Vazhani Sanctuary lies in Thrissur and
Thalapilly taldkas of Thrissur district (10° 28'-
10° 40' N and 76° 17'-76°29’ E) (Nair 1991).
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
289
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
1. Kilupillikara
2. Inchamudi
3. Karuvannur
4. Manali
5. Trikur
6. Murkinikara
7. Patti kad
8. Cheenakadavu
9. Puvanchira
10. Olakara
1 1 . Anaipadam
12. Inchipara
13. Virakuthoda
14. Payambayar
15. Kundai
16. Karikadavau
17. Anappantham
18. Munnumuri
19. Kurumala
20. Viranchira
Reservoirs:
A. Peechi
B. Chimmony
Fig. 1 : Map of Karuvannur river showing various collection sites and reservoirs
This Sanctuary consists of parts of
Paravattanimala Reserve, Machadmala Reserve
and Bharanipachamala Reserve. The total area
of the Sanctuary is 125 sq. km and is drained by
Manali tributary of Karuvannur river (Peechi
part) and Kechery river (Vazhani part). Two
irrigation projects in the Sanctuary receive water
from Peechi and Vazhani Reservoirs. The Peechi-
Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary has all the diversity
and complexity of the Western Ghats gene
resources. The vegetal spectrum ranges from
truly evergreen patches to vast tracts of moist
deciduous and semi-evergreen forests. The
Sanctuary also contains some monoculture areas
of teak plantations. The altitude varies from 30
to 928 m above msl. The highest peak inside the
Sanctuary is Ponmudi which is a trijunction of
Palakkad. Mukindapuram and Thrissur talukas.
The endangered Nilgiri tahr found in the
Ponmudi area and peacock are the main
attractions within the Sanctuary area. The
temperature ranges between 15 °C (during winter
in hilly areas) and 38 °C (during summer in
lowland areas).
Fish samples were collected from January
1997 to July 1998 from different localities in the
streams and lakes. Fishes were collected mainly
by using gillnets and cast nets. For collecting
small fishes, a rectangular net with weighted
edges was employed. Fishes were identified by
visual observation and also in the laboratory. For
laboratory identification, fishes were preserved
in 10% formalin. Fishes were identified by
referring to Day (1878), Jayaram (1981), Datta
Muni and Srivastava (1988), and Talwar and
Jhingran (1991).
290
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Fish fauna: The systematic list of species
is given below:
I Family: Anguilladae
1. Anguilla bengalensis (Gray)
II Family: Cyprinidae
2. Catla catla (Hamilton)
3. Cirrhinus mrigala (Hamilton)
4. Cyprinus carpio communis Linn.
5. Labeo rohita (Hamilton)*
6. Puntius amphibius (Val.)
7. P. arulius (Jerdon)*
8. P. filamentosus (Val.)
9. P. melanampyx (Day)
10. P. sarana subnasutus (Val.)
11 . P. ticto (Hamilton)
12. P. vittatus Day
13. Danio aequipinnatus (McClelland)
14. D. malabaricus (Jerdon)
15. Parluciosoma daniconius (Hamilton)
16. Garra mullya (Sykes)
III Family: Balitoridae
17. Nemacheilus guentheri Day
18. N. triangularis Day
IV Family: Cobitidae
19. Lepidocephalus thermalis (Val.)
V Family: Bagridae
20. Mystus armatus (Day)
21. M. malabaricus (Jerdon)
22. M. oculatus (Val.)
VI Family: Siluridae
23. Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch)
24. Wallago attu (Schneider)
VII Family: Claridae
25. Clarias batrachus (Linn.)
VIII Family: Heteropneustidae
26. Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch)
IX Family: Belonidae
27. Xenentedon cancila (Hamilton)
X Family: Aplocheilidae
28. Aplocheilus lineatus (Val.)
XI Family: Ambassidae
29. Parambassis thomassi (Day)
XII Family: Cichlidae
30. Etroplus maculatus (Bloch)
3 1 . Oreochromis mossambica (Peters)
XIII Family: Gobidae
32. Glossogobius giuris (Hamilton)
XIV Family: Channidae
33. Channa marulius (Hamilton)
34. C. orientalis Bloch & Schneider**
35. C. punctatus (Bloch)**
36. C. striatus (Bloch)*
XV Family: Mastacembelidae
37. Mastacembelus armatus (Lacepede)
[* Recorded only from Peechi-Vazhani,
** Recorded only from Chimmony]
The present survey indicates the rich
fish fauna in Chimmony and Peechi-Vazhani
Wildlife Sanctuaries. A total of 37 species,
belonging to 15 families, were collected from
these Sanctuary areas. Of the 37 species collected,
Cyprinus carpio communis , Labeo rohita ,
Puntius arulius and Channa striatus were
recorded only from Peechi-Vazhani Sanctuary
area, while Channa orientalis and C. punctatus
were restricted to Chimmony Sanctuary. Four
species were culture fishes, namely Cyprinus
carpio communis , Labeo rohita , Catla catla and
Cirrhinus mrigala. Most of the other species
are widely distributed in Kerala and other
parts of the Western Ghats. Puntius filamentosus.
P. melanampyx , Parluciosoma daniconius and
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
291
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Garra mullya were collected mainly from the
streams adjacent to the reservoir.
Acknowledgements
We thank the US Fish and Wildlife Service
and the Ministry of Environment and Forests,
Govt, of India, for sponsoring the project
“Ecology of the hillstreams of Western Ghats
with special reference to fish community”. We
also thank the Kerala Forest Department officials
for permission and assistance during our field
study.
January 25, 1999 K. RAJU THOMAS
C.R. BIJU*
C.R. AJITHKUMAR
Bombay Natural History Society,
Hornbill House, S B. Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.
* Present Address:
Chemmandaparambil(H),
P.O. Chembuchira 680 684,
Thrissur(Dt.), Kerala, India
M. JOHN GEORGE
Mar Thoma College for Women, Perumbavoor,
Ernakulam 683 542, Kerala, India.
References
Biju, C.R., K. Raju Thomas & C.R. Ajjthkumar (1999):
Fishes of Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, Palakkad
district, Kerala, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 96(1 ): 82-
87
Datta Munshi, J.S. & M.P. Srivastava (1988): Natural
history of fishes and systematics of freshwater fishes
of India. Narendra Publishing House, New Delhi.
Day, F. ( 1 878): The Fishes of India; being a natural history
of fishes known to inhabit the seas and freshwaters of
India, Burma and Ceylon. William Dawson &Sons Ltd.,
London. Vol 1. & Vol 2. Reprinted 1958.
Jayaram, K.C. (1981): Freshwater fishes of India. A
Handbook. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.
Nair, S.C. (1991): The Southern Western Ghats — a
biodiversity conservation plan, INTACH, New Delhi.
Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of
India and adjacent countries. Oxford & IBH Publishing
Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
18. NEW RECORDS OF FISHES FROM THE WESTERN GHATS
OF MAHARASHTRA
During studies on fish diversity in the
Western Ghats streams and rivers in Maharashtra
under the Western Ghats Biodiversity
Programme, we collected Silurus wynaadensis ,
Puntius bimaculatus , Puntius conchonius and
Hypselobarbus dubius from various streams and
rivers. Recently, we recorded Salmostoma
sardinella from Mondai stream and
Stigmatogobius oligactis from Dhom reservoir
as new records from Maharashtra and India
respectively (Arunachalam et al., 1999a,b).
However, on further studies, we found four more
species as new records from Maharashtra.
The above-mentioned fish species have
not been recorded by earlier workers: Day ( 1 868),
Hora and Misra (1942), Suter (1944), Kulkarni
and Ranade (1974), Jayaram (1981, 1991),
Talwar and Jhingran (1991), Ghate and Pawar
(1992) and Menon (1992).
Silurus wynaadensis Day
This species was originally described by
Day (1873, 1878) in Wynaad, Kerala state
(erstwhile Travancore). We collected one
specimen from Mondai stream, which arises in
the Mandhardevi hill ranges and meets the River
Neerar. The fish was collected 1 km from Shirrai
in Satara district. Bhimachar and Rau (1941)
recorded this species from Jagger valley in
Karnataka in the Cauvery and Tungabhadra river
systems. Rajan (1955) reported this species from
292
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
the headwaters of the Bhavani river (Cauvery
river basin) and Menon (1992) in Cauvery
drainage at Virthy in Wynaad, Kerala State.
Recently it is reported from the headwaters of
Chandragiri, a west flowing river in Kasargod,
Kerala (Gopi 1 996), and by Arunachalam ( 1 998)
from Kallar river in south Kerala.
Description: D-4 P-i/10 V-i/7 A-i/56.
Body elongate and compressed. Head
length 5 times in standard length. Upper jaw
longer than lower jaw. Barbels three pairs;
maxillary barbels extend over pectoral fins but
do not reach base of pelvic fins; mandibular
barbels two pairs. Eye diameter 5 times in head
length.
Puntius bimaculatus (Bleeker)
This species was originally described by
Bleeker (1844) from Ceylon. We collected one
specimen from Phansad Wildlife Sanctuary,
Murud Taluka, Raigad district. Talwar and
Jhingran (1991) considered its geographical
distribution from Sri Lanka only. Pethiyagoda
(1991) described this species and its distribution
in Sri Lanka. Menon and Rema Devi (1992)
described this species from Kalakkad Wildlife
Sanctuary, Tirunelveli district, Tamil Nadu.
Arunachalam (1997) recorded its widest
distribution in riverine wetlands of Tamiraparani.
Rema Devi et al. (1997) also recorded it from
Tamiraparani river system. We have recorded
P. bimaculatus in the Western Ghats from
Tamiraparani river, Gandana river, Rama Nadhi,
Hanuman Nadhi, Karuppan Nadhi, New Falls and
Moyar river (Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve) in Tamil
Nadu, Hemavathi and Ekatchi rivers of south
Karnataka (Arunachalam 1998) except Kerala.
Description: D-ii/10 P-i/10 V-i/6 A-i/5.
Body elongate, more convex dorsally than
ventrally, depth 4 times in standard length. Head
3.8 times in standard length. Mouth small.
Barbels one pair maxillary only, shorter than eye
diameter. Dorsal fin inserted equidistant between
tip of snout and base of caudal fin. Eye diameter
3 times in head length. Lateral line complete with
24 scales.
Hypselobarbus dubius (Day)
Originally described by Day (1867) from
Bhavani river, Nilgiri hills, Tamil Nadu. We
collected 2 specimens from Khal river, which
originates from Bhira in Raigad district,
Maharashtra. Recorded by Rajan (1955) from the
headwaters of Bhavani river, south India.
Johnsingh and Wickram (1987) recorded it from
Mundanthurai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu.
Recently it was recorded by Rema Devi et
al (1997) and Arunachalam (1998) from the
Tamiraparani river system. This large barb is
abundant in Bhavani river, Nilgiri hills, Tamil
Nadu, and in the Tamiraparani river system. This
species forms a major fishery in the Cauvery and
Tamiraparani river systems.
Description: D-iii/9 P-i/14-15 V-i/8-9 A-
ii-iii.5.
Body robust, its depth about four times in
standard length. Eye moderate, diameter about
4.7 to 5 times in head length. Mouth subinferior,
barbels two, rather short pairs. Dorsal fin inserted
slightly nearer to snout tip than to base of caudal
fin. Lateral line complete with 44 scales.
Puntius conchonius (Hamilton-Buchanan)
This species was originally described by
Hamilton-Buchanan from ponds, and Kosi and
Ami rivers of northeast Bengal. We collected 5
specimens from Dhom reservoir, a man-made
impoundment of the Krishna and Vaitali rivers.
Singh et al. (1987) recorded it from Garhwal
Himalaya, Barman (1994) from Tripura,
northeast India, and Johal et al. (1993) from
Rajasthan. Recently it was reported by
Arunachalam (1998) from Hemavathi and
Ekatchi rivers, Western Ghats of south
Karnataka.
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
293
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Description: D-iii/7-8 P-i/14- 1 6 V-i/8
A-ii-iii/5.
Body deep and compressed, its depth 2.8
to 3.5 times in standard length. Head 3.7 to 4.5
times in standard length. Mouth moderate; no
barbels. Dorsal fin inserted equidistant between
tip of snout and base of caudal fin, its unbranched
ray osseous, moderately strong and serrated.
Lateral line incomplete, ceases after 10th to 13th
scale; 24-26 scales in longitudinal series.
AcKNOWLEDG EM ENTS
M. Arunachalam thanks Prof. Madhav
Gadgil of the Centre for Ecological Systems,
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, for
financial assistance under the Western Ghats
Biodiversity Network (WGBN). We thank
Refer
Arunachalam, M. (1997): Inventory of riverine wetlands
of Tamiraparani basin. Unpublished report
submitted to Manonmaniam Sundaranar University
(UGC unassigned grant), Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu,
India, pp. 99.
Arunachalam, M. (1998): Biodiversity and ecological
structure of fishes in streams of south India.
Unpublished report (Grant No. BT/R&D/l 9.06.93
dt. 29th March 1996) Department of Biotechnology,
Govt, of India, pp. 31.
Arunachalam, M., A. Sankaranarayanan, A.
Manimekalan, R. Soranam & J.A. Johnson
(1999a): New record of Salmostoma sardinella
(Pisces: Cyprinidae) from Mondai stream,
Maharashtra. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 96(1 ): 162-
163.
Arunachalam, M., A. Sankaranarayanan, A.
Manimekalan, R. Soranam & J.A. Johnson
(1999b): New record of Stigmatogobius oligactis
to India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 96(1): 167-168.
Barman, R.P. (1994): Fish fauna of Tripura, northeast
India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 91(1): 37-46.
Bhimachar, B.S. & A.S. Rau (1941): The fishes of Mysore
State 1 -Fishes of Kadur district. J. Univ. Mysore 1:
141-153.
Bleeker (1844): Verb. Nat. Holl. Maatsch. Haarlem (2)
20: pi. 4, fig. 1.
Day, F. (1867): Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. pp. 201 .
Dr. P.T. Cherian, Officer-in-charge, Zoological
Survey of India, Southern Regional Station,
Chennai for facilities, Dr. K. Rema Devi and
Dr. T. J. Indra, Scientists, ZSI, Southern Regional
Station for confirming the identifications, and
RANWA of Maharashtra for local arrangements,
especially Mr. Raghul for his help.
January 25, 1999 M. ARUNACHALAM
A. SANKARANARAYANAN
J.A. JOHNSON
A. MANIMEKALAN
R. SORANAM
Sri Paramkalyani Centre
for Environmental Sciences,
Manonmaniam Sundaranar University,
Alwarkurichi 627 412,
Tamil Nadu, India.
ENCES
Day, F. (1 868): Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. pp. 155.
Day, F. (1873): On some new or imperfectly known fishes
of India and Burma. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. pp. 237.
Day, F. ( 1 878): The Fishes of India; being a natural history
of fishes known to inhabit the seas and freshwaters
of India, Burma and Ceylon. William Dawson
&Sons Ltd., London. Vol 1. & Vol 2. Reprinted
1958.
Ghate, H. V. & V.M. Pa war ( 1 992): Fish fauna of the river
Neerar near Veer Dam, Pune: A preliminary note.
Proc. 1st Nat. Symp. on Central hydraulics ,
pp. 118-121.
Gopi, K.C. (1996): Extension of range of Silurus
wynaadensis Day (Pisces: Siluriformes: Siluridae)
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93: 592-593.
Hora, S.L. & K.S. Misra (1942): Fishes of Poona.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 42(2): 220-223.
Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The freshwater fishes of India,
Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka.
Handbook, Zool. Surv. India pp.xii + 475.
Jayaram, K.C. (1991): Revision of the genus Puntius
Hamilton from the Indian region. Rec. Zool. Surv.
India. Occ. Paper No: 135,pp. 178.
Johnsingh, A.J.T. & D. Wickram (1987): Fishes of
Mundanthurai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(3): 526-633.
Johal, M.S., J.S. Chahal & K.K. Tandon (1993):
Ichthyofauna of Rajasthan state. J. Bombay nat.
294
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Hist. Soc. 90(3): 406-411.
Kulkarni, C. V. & MR. Ranade ( 1 974): Fauna Gazette of
India: Chapter I Maharashtra State.
Menon, A.G.K. ( 1 992): Conservation of freshwater fishes
of Peninsular India. Unpublished report (Grant No.
14/24/8 7- MAB/RE dt. 12.8.88) Ministry of
Environment & Forests, Govt, of India. Pp. 136.
Menon, A.G.K. & K. Rema Devi ( 1 992): Puntius puckelli
a junior synonym of Puntius bimaculatus. Ichthyol.
Explor. Freshwaters 3(3): 219-223.
Pethjyagoda, R. (1991): Freshwater fishes of Sri Lanka.
Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka, Colombo,
pp. 362.
Rajan, S. (1955): On a collection of fish from the
headwaters of Bhavani river, south India. ./.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. S3: 44-48.
Rema Devi, K., T.J. Indra, M.B. Ragunathan, M. Mary
Bai & M.S. Ravichandran (1997): Ichthyofauna
of the Tamiraparani river system, Tamil Nadu.
Zoo ’s print Vol. J2 (7): 1 -2.
Singh, H.R. S.P. Badola & A.K. Dobriyal (1987):
Geographical distributional list of Ichthyofauna of
the Garhwal Himalaya with some new records.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(1): 126-132.
Suter, M. (1944): New records of fishes from Poona.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 44(3): 408-414.
Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of
India and adjacent countries. Vol. 1 &2,pp.ll58.
19. MANTID FAUNA OF SANJAY GANDHI NATIONAL PARK, MUMBAI,
WITH SOME NEW RECORDS FOR MAHARASHTRA STATE
The Sanjay Gandhi National Park (SGNP)
lies in the northern region of the Western Ghats,
in a general north- south direction. It has a south
Indian moist-deciduous forest type with a mean
annual rainfall of 2,600 mm. The Park includes
various habitats like mixed moist-deciduous
forest with patches of pure bamboo, teak
dominated forest including teak plantation,
mangrove forest along the creek and western
subtropical hill forest. Because of the variety of
habitats, it is rich in insect fauna. However, very
little is known about the insect biodiversity of
the area. The mantid fauna of the Park and its
environs is reported here.
Out of 162 species found in India
(Mukherjee et al. 1995), the present study
records 1 1 species from the Sanjay Gandhi
National Park (SGNP), Mumbai, Maharashtra.
The paper also provides measurements i.e. Body
length (BL), Pronotum (PN) and Forewing (FW)
of male (M) or female (F) of some species not
recorded earlier.
The collection was made from 1995
onwards. The specimens were collected with
nets. Mantids attracted to light at night were
also collected. Only a representative collection
was made; known species were caught and
released after confirming the identification.
The specimens so collected were identified
according to Mukherjee et al. (1995). Some
identifications were confirmed by Dr. T.K.
Mukherjee.
The SGNP has 1 1 species belonging to 4
out of the 6 families of mantids found in India.
One specimen collected earlier from Mumbai
was identified as a species of Empusa, while
another which was brought to us a few years
ago from Pune by a student, was identified as
Ambivia popa Stal. Some species like Gongylus
gongyloides (Linn.) and Creoboter gemmatus
(Stoll) prefer to sit on flowers of Leea, which
attract hundreds of butterflies and other insects.
Hierodula spp. prefer green vegetation, while
Humbertiella spp. are found on the bark of
trees.
All measurements are in mm.
A. Family: Amorphoscelidae Stal.
[1] Amorphosclesis annulicornis Stal.
Collection site: CEC Centre, Goregaon
(E) adjacent to SGNP. 20.vi.1998.
Measurements: F: BL-17; PN-3; FW-14.
Distribution: India: Assam, Bihar, Daman
& Diu, Himachal Pradesh, Kerala, Meghalaya,
Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, New record for
Maharashtra.
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
B. Family: Hymenopodidae Chopard
[a] Subfamily: Acromantinae Giglio-Tos
[2] Hestiasula brunneriana Saussure
Collection site: Sanjay Gandhi National
Park (SGNP), Mumbai, 12.vii.1998.
Measurements: F: BL-28; PN-4.5;
FW-24.
Distribution: india: So far recorded from
Andhra Pradesh, Meghalaya, West Bengal. New
record for Maharashtra.
[b] Subfamily: Hymenopodinae Giglio-Tos
[3] Creobroter gemmatus (Stoll)
Collection site: CEC, Goregaon (E),
Mumbai. 24.viii.1998.
Measurements: M: BL-31; PN-7.5;
FW-31.
Distribution: india: Arunachal Pradesh,
Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Uttar Pradesh. New
record for Maharashtra.
C. Family: Mantidae Burmeister
[a] Subfamily: Liturgusinae Giglio-Tos
[4] Humbertiella affinis Giglio-Tos
Collection site: CEC, Goregaon, Mumbai,
12.vii.1998.
Measurements: M: BL-25; PN-6; FW-23.
The earlier recorded measurement (Mukherjee
et al. 1995) is of a female.
Distribution: india: Karnataka, Orissa.
New record for Maharashtra.
[5] Humbertiella indica Saussure
Collection site: SGNP, ll.v.1998.
Measurements: M: BL-31; PN-5.5;
FW-26.
Distribution: india: Gujarat, Karnataka,
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu,
Uttar Pradesh.
[6] Humbertiella nigrospinosa Sjostedt
Collection site: SGNP. 5.ix.l998.
Measurements: F: BL-31; PN-8; FW- 18.
Distribution: recorded from Orissa, Uttar
Pradesh. New record for Maharashtra.
[b] Subfamily: Mantinae Kirby
Tribe: Miomantini Beier
[7] Deiphobe infuscata (Saussure)
Collection site: 1 male, 1 female from:
SGNP, 11. v. 1999 and 14.V.1999.
Measurements: M: BL-85; PN-23; FW-52
F: BL-87; PN-27; FW-22
Distribution: india: Bihar, Himachal
Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh. New record for
Maharashtra.
[8] Deiphobe incisia Werner
Collection site: CEC, Goregaon (E)
adjacent to SGNP. 6.viii.l995.
Measurements: M: BL-84; PN-24;
FW-43.
Distribution: india: Maharashtra,
Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar
Pradesh.
Tribe: Mantini Beier
[9] Hierodula saussurei Kirby
Collection site: Male and Female from
SGNP. 12.vii.1998.
Measurements: M: BL-57;PN-18;FW-41
F:BL-74; PN-23; FW-48
Distribution: Arunachal Pradesh. New
record for Maharashtra.
[ 1 0] Hierodula ( Rhombodera ) butleri Wood
Manson
Collection site: SGNP, 7.vi.l998.
Measurements: M: BL-60; PN-18;
FW-43.
Distribution: india: Assam, Meghalaya,
Sikkim, West Bengal. New record for
Maharashtra.
D. Family: Empusidae Burmeister
[e] Subfamily: Empusinae Saussure
[11] Gongylus gongylodes (Linnaeus)
Collection site: SGNP. 10. xi. 1995.
Measurements: F: BL-80; PN-41; FW-28.
Distribution: india: Andhra Pradesh,
Kerala, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal. New record
for Maharashtra.
296
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Acknowledgements
We thank Ms. V. Shubhalaxmi, Education
Officer, CEC, BNHS for specimens, and Dr. T.K.
Mukherjee for confirming the identity of some
of the specimens.
October 15, 1999 NARESH CHATURVEDI
VITHOBA HEGDE
Bombay Natural History Society,
Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023,
Maharashtra, India.
Reference
Mukherjee, T.K., A.K. Hazra & A.K. Ghosh (1995): The Mantid Fauna of India (Insecta-Mantodea). Oriental
Ins. 29: 185-358.
20. RECENT RECORD OF CREOBROTER APICALIS SAUSSURE
(INSECTA : MANTODEA) FROM PUNE, MAHARASHTRA AND KUMTA, KARNATAKA
(With one plate)
During 1997-98, we came across a very
colourful mantis in the areas around Pune (Mulshi,
Aundh Road, Kondhawa). We collected 3
specimens (all three females) from Pune and one
in Santegully near Kumta (Karnataka). The
taxonomic characters of the insect are given below.
Head triangular. Vertex with a small spine
above ocelli. Frontal sclerite transverse,
bicarinate and with central depressed area.
Frontal sclerite with small, lateral wing-like
expansions. Eyes large, conical, bulging beyond
the circumference of the head. Pronotum with
dentate lateral edge and prominent coxal dilation.
Forecoxae with 6-7 small spines; forefemur with
4 external, 4 discoidal and 13 internal spines,
all the spines brown-tipped. Femoral brush
brownish, claw groove proximal. Foretibia with
15 external and 15 internal brown-tipped spines;
of these, external spines bent at base and closely
set; mid and hind femora each with a small lateral
apical lobe. Forewings grass green, costal area
translucent. Oblique oval, yellow patch bordered
laterally by two black semicircular rings in the
central part of each fore wing. This so called ‘eye
mark’ encloses 1, 2 or 3 black dots. Basal yellow
patch on each forewing. Hindwings with
characteristic colour pattern, costal area
translucent yellow, base pink or purple, discoidal
and anal areas brown with hyaline cross veins.
Body colourful. Head mostly greenish-
yellow, vertex dark green. Pronotum dark green
with a complete faint yellow border. All legs
yellowish with olive-green bands. Meso- and
metathoracic segments dorsally brown. First four
or five abdominal segments pink in the mid-
dorsal area, rest of the segments brownish
(Plate 1, Fig. 1). Ventrally, thorax and abdomen
uniformly greenish-yellow.
Measurements (in mm) of a Mulshi
specimen: female, 21.vii.1998, coll. N. Rane,
Body length 33.0; forewing 28, hind wing 25;
prozona/metazona 3/4.5; forecoxa 8; forefemur
10.2; foretibia 5.3. The other two mantid
specimens are very similar in morphometry.
With the help of a recent report on the
fauna of Mantodea (Mukherjee et al. 1995) we
could easily identify this interesting mantis as a
species of Creobroter , on the following grounds.
Family Hymenopodidae (external spines of the
foretibiae numerous, bent and very closely set;
forewing with eye-like mark); Subfamily
Hymenopodinae (frontal sclerite with two lateral
wing-like expansions and central depression;
eyes bulging beyond the circumference of head);
Genus Creobroter (ventral lobes of mid and hind
femora occupy distal position only).
Specific determination of this insect was
based on personal communication with Dr. T.K.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
297
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Mukherjee who was provided morphometric
data and colour photographs. The species has
been determined as Creobroter apicalis as the
eye-mark is placed in the middle of the fore-
wing.
There are, in all, 6 species presently under
the genus Creobroter in India. C. apicalis has
been reported earlier from Ambenali in
Maharashtra (Mukherjee and Hazra 1983). The
species is also known from Karnataka
(Mukherjee et al. 1995) and our collection from
Santegully, Kumta, (14.ix.1998 N. Rane)
becomes an additional report, but from a definite
locality in Karnataka State. All the specimens
in our collection are females. Mukherjee et al
(1995) also record the examination of 23 females
and of one male specimen.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Dr. T.K. Mukherjee for
help in specific determination of this mantis,
and the authorities of Modern College for
facilities. One specimen of this species was
collected during DBT-Funded ‘Biodiversity
Monitoring Project Workshop’ organized by the
Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute
of Science, Bangalore. We are grateful for
financial assistance provided for the Project
through Prof. Madhav Gadgil and IISc,
Bangalore.
February 29, 2000 H.V. GHATE
NILESH RANE
SACHIN RANADE
Post-Graduate Research Centre,
Department of Zoology,
Modern College,
Shivaji Nagar,
Pune 411 005,
Maharashtra, India.
References
Mukherjee, T.K. & A.K. Hazra (1983): On a small collection of Mantidae (Dictyoptera) from Maharashtra, India, with
the description of a new species. Rec. Zool. Surv. India 80: 459-465.
Mukherjee, T.K., A.K. Hazra & A.K. Ghosh ( 1 995): The mantid fauna of India (Insecta: Mantodea). Oriental Ins. 29:
185-358.
21. SISYPHUS LONGIPES (OLIVER) (COLEOPTERA : SCARAB AEIDAE :
SCARAB AEINAE) — A NEW RECORD FOR ANDAMAN ISLANDS
The Andamans and the Nicobars, situated
1 ,200 km off the Indian mainland in the Bay of
Bengal between 6° and 14° N and 91° and 94° E,
though rich in insect fauna with several endemic
species, dung beetles are very poorly represented
on these islands. Only six species having been
reported, namely Catharsius molossus L., Copris
spinator Har., Onthophagus cervus F.,
O. orientalis Har., O. unifasciatus (Schall.), and
Paraphytus andamanus Arrow (Arrow 1931,
Veenakumari and Prashanth Mohanraj 1994).
None of these species, however, belong to the
dung roller group. We report the occurrence of
Sisyphus longipes (Oliver), a dung roller of the
Family Sisyphini from the Andaman Islands. A
single specimen was caught in Garacharma,
S. Andaman on January 25, 1998.
S. longipes has a wide distribution from
Sri Lanka through central and eastern India to
Burma (= Myanmar) (Arrow 1931). Many
elements of the Andaman fauna (eg. a large
percentage of the avifauna) are presumed to have
arrived on these islands across the much
narrower stretches of water that existed between
Burma and these islands, as compared to any of
the other neighbouring continental areas, during
the Pleistocene sea level lowering (Ripley and
Beehler 1989). If S. longipes had arrived on these
298
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H.V. Ghate et al. Creobroter apicalis Plate 1
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
299
Fig. 1 : Creobroter apicalis $ , actual size 30 mm (length)
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
islands during that period and established itself
here, then it must be a very rare species or one
with cryptic habits, as we have not found any
more specimens during our dung beetle surveys
on these islands. This is likely as S. longipes is
known to inhabit obscure places like the nests of
ants (Arrow, 1931). In case the species has not
yet established itself on these islands, the
specimen collected by us may be part of the waif
biota arriving on these islands or a vagrant, just
like the dozen or so species of butterflies that
Ferrar (1948) identified as vagrants on these
islands. Further studies can establish the status
of this species on the Andaman Islands.
AcKNOWLEDGEM ENT
We thank Dr. A. K. Bandyopadhyay,
Director, Central Agricultural Research Institute
for encouragement.
June 26, 1999 K. VEENAKUMARI
PRASHANTH MOHANRAJ
Central Agricultural Research Institute,
Port Blair 744 101,
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India.
References
Arrow, G. J. ( 1 93 1 ): The Fauna of British India including
Ceylon and Burma. Coleoptera: Lamellicornia, III
(Coprinae). Taylor and Francis, London, pp. 428.
Ferrar, M. L., (1948): The butterflies of the Andamans
and Nicobars. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 47:
470-491.
Ripley, S. D. & B.M. Beehler(1989): Ormthogeographic
affinities of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
J. Biogeogr.16 : 323-332.
Veenakumari, K. & Prashant Mohanraj (1994):
Onthophagus unifasciatus F. (Coleoptera:
Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae) - A new record for
Andaman Islands. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 91(1):
153-154.
22. LARGE SCALE EMERGENCE AND MIGRATION OF THE COMMON
EMIGRANT BUTTERFLIES CATOPSILIA POMONA (FAMILY : PIERIDAE)
During my journey on June 17, 1999,
through the forest tracts between Mahasamund
(Dist. H.Q.) to Tumgaon and Jhalap (NH 6),
Madhya Pradesh, no less than five to six
thousand Common Emigrant butterflies
( Catopsilia pomona) were observed flying south
to north at a moderate height of 0.60 m to 4 m
above ground. At that time (1230 hrs to 1330
hrs) the sun was shining. This forest tract
surrounds a big man-made reservoir named
Kodar and has teak plantation patches in
between the forest, on NH 6.
Interestingly, in the teak ( Tectona grandis)
patches, the butterflies were almust absent,
whereas in mixed deciduous forest patches they
were present in large numbers.
A few Mottled Emigrants ( Catopsilia
pyranthe ) and Lime Butterflies ( Papilio
demoleus) were also flying with the Common
Emigrants. It was noted that the swarm of
butterflies seemed to be on a northward
migration. During my return journey (1600 hrs
to 1700 hrs) the sky was heavily clouded and it
was drizzling; hardly 200 to 300 butterflies were
seen on the same route.
Butterflies usually migrate northward to
avoid the southwest monsoon. In this case, the
migration may be due to premonsoon rain in
the month of June. The locality had moderate
rains in the past 15 days, but the monsoon was
yet to set in. The large scale emergence and
migration appeared to have started three months
in advance. Also, the marked absence of the
species in teak patches was interesting.
November 1 8, 1 999 A.M.K. BHAROS
B-101, Gayatri Nagar,
PO Shanker Nagar,
Raipur 492 001, Madhya Pradesh, India.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
23. TRIDIDEMNUM DELLA VALLE 1881, AN UNRECORDED GENUS OF
COLONIAL ASCIDIAN FROM INDIA
(With one text-figure)
The occurrence of the genus Trididemnum
Della Valle 1881 is reported for the first time
from India. A preliminary survey of the seas
adjoining the southeast coast from Tuticorin to
Rameswaram, carried out in 1993-1994, showed
the presence of 26 genera of ascidians. Of these,
21 genera have been reported prior to 1986 by
earlier workers (Oka 1915, Das 1938, 1940,
1945; Sebastian 1952, 1955, 1956; Renganathan
andMonniot 1984, Renganathan 1981, 1982a,b,
1984, 1986a,b, Renganathan and Krishnaswamy
1985), and 4 genera have been reported relatively
recently (Meenakshi and Renganathan 1997,
Meenakshi 1998/ The present paper adds one
more genus of ascidian — Trididemnum — as a
new record for Indian waters.
Trididemnum cerebriforme
Hartmeyer 1913
A single colony was collected from the
undersurface of calcrete rocks in the littoral zone
of Ervadi (9° 11' N;-78° 43' E) (Fig. 1).
Description: Colony flat, encrusting,
irregular, measuring 3 x 2.5 cm, surface smooth,
tough, milky white with patches of green cells.
The green colour changed to yellow on
preservation. The superficial test has a thin layer
of bladder cells. Below this is a continuous layer
of spicules. The remaining part of the test has
sparsely distributed spicules, decreasing further
towards the base of the colony. Spicules large,
measuring 0.04-0.06 mm with 9-12 pointed rays.
Basal test thin, common cloacal aperture
conspicuous. Zooids 1.5-1.75 mm long. Both
siphons well developed. Branchial siphon has
sphincter muscles and 6- small lobes. The atrial
siphon arises from the posterior dorsal surface
of the thorax. Three rows of stigmata, with 8-10
stigmata in each row. The gut forms a single loop
with a spherical stomach situated half way down
the abdomen and a short posterior stomach. 8-10
bands of longitudinal muscles. Testis undivided.
The proximal part of the vas deferens coils 4 to
5 times. No larva was observed in the single
colony studied (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Trididemnum cerebriforme - Zooid.
BA- Branchial aperture, E: Endostyle, T: Thorax,
S: Stigmata, O: Oesophagus, R: Rectum,
ST: Stomach, PS: Posterior Stomach.
Scale: 1 cm = 0.1 25 mm
Distribution: India (Ervadi - ZSI-AS 13).
Previously recorded from South Africa (Hartmeyer
1913, Millar 1955); southern Arabia (Kott 1957),
302
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2), AUG. 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Australia (Kott 1962, 1972a, b, 1975, 1976); New
Zealand (Michaelsen 1924); Philippines, Palau,
Mariana, Hawaii Islands (Tokioka 1967); Japan
Sea (Nishikawa 1990); Fiji (Kott 1981).
Remarks
The nature of the colony and the zooids of
this specimen are identical with those previously
described by Hartmeyer (1913), Millar (1955),
and Kott (1976, 1981). The milky white
appearance of the colonies, the posterior
abdominal cloacal cavity, and the size of the
spicules, their form and distribution, are
Refer
Das, S.M. (1938): On Ecteinascidia bombayensis n. sp.
(A new Ascidian from Bombay). Proc. Ind. Acad.
Sci. 8 : 295-300.
Das, S.M. (1940): On Herdmania (Rhab do cynthia)
enmurensis n.sp. (A new monascidian from
Madras). Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. IP. 50-60.
Das, S.M. (1945): On a collection of monascidians from
Madras. J. Roy. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, Science IP.
6-17.
Della Valle, A. (1881): Nouvi contribuzioni alia storia
naturalle delle ascidie composte del Golfa di Napole.
Mem. Acad. Lincei. 10: 431-498.
Hartmeyer, R. (1913): Tunicata. In: L. Schultze, Zool. U.
anthrop Ergebnissee Forschangsreisein Sudafrika.
Bd5, Lft2. Denkschr. med. naturw. Ges. Jena. 17.
125-144.
Kott, P. (1957): Ascidians of Australia II.
Aplousobranchiata Lahille; Clavelinidae Forbes and
Hanley and Polyclinidae Verrill. Aust. J. mar.
Freshwat. Res., 8: 64-1 10.
Kott, P. (1962): The Ascidians of Australia III.
Aplousobranchiata Lahille; Didemnidae Giard.
Aust. J. mar. Freshwat. Res. 13: 265-334.
Kott, P. (1972a): Some sublittoral ascidians in Moreton
Bay and their seasonal occurrence. Mem. Qd. Mus.
16: 233-260.
Kott, P. (1972b): The fauna of the Gulf of Carpentaria:
No. 2, Ascidiacea (Chordata: Tunicata). Fish. Notes
Qd. (n.s) 2: 39-54.
Kott, P. (1975): The ascidians of South Australia III.
Northern sector of the Great Australian Bight and
additional records. Trans. R. Soc. S. Aust. 99: 1-20.
Kott, P. (1976): Ascidian fauna of Western Port Bay,
characteristics of the present species.
Acknowledgements
I thank Dr. T.K. Renganathan, Professor
of Zoology, V.O. Chidambaram College,
Tuticorin for guidance and constant
encouragement, and the UGC, New Delhi for
financial assistance.
December 26, 1998 V.K. MEENAKSHI
Department of Zoology,
APC Mahalaxmi College for Women /
Tuticorin 628 002,
Tamil Nadu, India.
ENCES
Victoria and a comparison with that of Port Phillip
Bay. Mem. natn. Mus. Viet. 37: 53-96.
Kott, P. ( 1 98 1 ): The ascidians of the reef flats of Fiji. Proc.
Linn. Soc. N. S. W 105: 147-212.
Meenakshi, V.K. (1998): Occurrence of a new ascidian
species — Distaplia nathensis sp. nov. and two
species — Eusynstyela tincta (Van Name 1902),
Phallusia nigra (Savigny 1816) new records for
Indian waters. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 27: All-419.
Meenakshi, V.K. & T.K. Renganathan (1997): On the
occurrence of a rare simple ascidian, Rhodosoma
tarcicum (Savigny 1816) from India. Geobios New
Reports 16: 152-153.
Michaelsen, W. (1924): Ascidiae Krikobranchiae von
Newseeland, den Chatham und den Auckland
Inseln. Vidensk. Medd. dansk. naturb. Foren. Kbh.
11: 263-434.
Millar, R.H. (1955): On a collection of ascidians from
South Africa. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 125: 169-221.
Nishikawa, T. (1990): The ascidians of the Japan Sea 1.
T. Pubis. Scto mar. biol. Lab. 11: 91-142.
Oka, A. (1915): Report upon the Tunicata in the collection
of the Indian Museum. Mem. Indian Mus. 6: 1-33.
Renganathan, T.K. ( 1 98 1 ): On the occurrence of a colonial
ascidian, Didemnum psammathodes (Sluiter 1 895)
from India. Curr. Sci. 50: 922.
Renganathan, T.K. (1982a): On the occurrence of a
colonial ascidian, Lissoclinum fragile (Van Name
1902) from India. Curr. Sci. 51: 149.
Renganathan, T.K. (1982b): New record of a genus of
colonial ascidian from India Curr. Sci. 51: 253-254.
Renganathan, T.K. ( 1 984): Redescription of a rare colonial
ascidian, Botrylloides chevalense Herdman 1 906.
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Geobios New Reports 3: 1 5 8- 1 60.
Renganathan, T.K. (1986a): Eudistoma lakshmiani sp.n.
a new colonial ascidian from Tuticorin coast of
India. Geobios New Reports 5: 1 63-164.
Renganathan, T.K. (1986b): Studies on the ascidians of
South India. Ph.D. Thesis, Madurai Kamaraj
University, Madurai.
Renganathan, T.K. & S. Krishnaswamy (1985): Some
ascidians from Indian waters. Indian J. Mar. Sci.
14: 38-41 .
Renganathan, T.K. & F. Monniot (1984): Addition to
Ascidian fauna of India, Bull. Mus. natn. Hist. nat.
Paris 4 eser. 6A: 257-262.
Sebastian, V.O. ( 1 952): A new species of synascidian from
Madras. Curr. Sci. 21: 316-31 7.
Sebastian, V.O. (1955): Perophora listerii indica var. nova
— a new ascidian from the Madras coast of India.
Zool. Anz. 154: 266-268.
Sebastian, V.O. (1956): Symplegma viride Herdman and
Symplegma viride stolonica Berrill, two unrecorded
fouling organisms from Indian seas. J. Timb. Dry
Preserv. Ass. India. II: 2-4.
Tokjoka, T. (1967): Pacific Tunicataofthe United States
National Museum. Bull. U.S. natn. Mus. 251:
1-242.
24. RANGE EXTENSION FOR STROMB US PLICATUS SIB BALDI (SOWERBY)
(MOLLUSCA : MESOGASTROPODA : STROMBIDAE)
The Phylum Mollusca is well represented
along the Indian coast. Most of the available
literature is old and based on collections made
in the late 18th or early 19th century. It is,
therefore, desirable to update the information on
the status and distribution of Indian molluscs.
As a result of a survey along the Gulf of
Kutch in 1993, 1 came across a shell which was
identified as Strombus plicatus sibbaldi
(Sowerby). More specimens were collected
during subsequent surveys along this Gulf. The
literature gives its distribution as the eastern coast
of India, there being no record of its presence
along the west coast.
Locality: Okha and Mithapur along the
Gulf of Kutch.
Diagnosis: Size: 35-40 mm. Among the
smaller species; spires very tall and slender on
large body whorl. Each spire bears two strong
vertical ribs with many fine riblets. Both lips
strongly serrated on inner margin. Colour: White
with brown mottling. Aperture white with light
brown transverse striae.
Distribution: The species was previously
reported from the Bay of Bengal and northern
Indian Ocean.
Status: Rare.
January 27, 1999 DEEPAK APTE
Bombay Natural History Society,
Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.
25. NEW RECORD OF ASTENOCYPR1S PAPYRACEA (SARS 1903),
(CRUSTACEA, OSTRACODA) FROM WEST BENGAL, INDIA
( With eleven text-figures)
While studying zooplankton in the
freshwaters of West Bengal, Astenocypris
papyracea (Sars 1903) was found in one of the
collections and is described and illustrated in this
note. Astenocypris papyracea (Sars 1903) was
first described from Sumatra and many other
authors worked on this species, which belongs
to Class Ostracoda, Subclass Podocopa and
Order Podocopida. Muller (1912) changed the
genus name Leptocypris to Astenocypris under
the Subfamily Herpetocypridinae. Hartman and
Puri (1974) referred the genus to Subfamily
Dolerocypridinae. Victor and Fernando (1981)
suggested that the genus Astenocypris does not
304
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Figs. 1-4: Astenocypris papyracea { Sars 1903).
Female: 1 . Right valve external view; 2. Left valve external view; 3. Anteroventral corner of valve;
4. Posteroventral comer of valve.
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305
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Figs. 5-9: Astenocypris papyracea (Sars 1903).
Female: 5. Antenna (A2) (N-natatory seta, G2-Shorter claw); 6. Maxillula (3E-third endite);
7. Mandible; 8. First thoracopod (Tl); 9. Second thoracopod (T2)
306
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Figs. 10-11: Astenocypris papyracea (Sars 1903).
Female: 10. Furca (S = Setae, C = Claw); 1 1. Triebel’s loop, furcal attachment (fa)
(db = dorsal branch of fa; vb = ventral branch of fa).
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307
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
belong to Dolerocypridinae. Broodbakker (1983)
finally transferred this genus to the Subfamily
Cypricercinae. Though Astenocypris papyrcicea
was rediscovered in Kerala, South India by
George and Martens (1993), the confusion still
remains. The present study adds more
information on the morphology of the shell and
the trunk limbs, with more illustrations from the
eastern part of India.
Astenocypris papyracea (Sars 1903)
Leptocypris papyracea Sars 1903: 29.
Astenocypris papyracea (Sars 1903) in
G.W. Muller, 1912: 204; Victor & Fernando,
1981: 108-110; George and Martens, 1993:
29-31.
Material examined: Seven females from
Salsalabari paddy fields, 10.x. 1996, near
Aliporeduar, on the way to Buxa Tiger Reserve,
Jalpaiguri district, West Bengal.
Female; Body size 1.76 ±0.1 1 mm; Body
width 0.80 ±0.06 mm (n=3). Valves long, dorsal
margin nearly straight in anterior half, sloping
towards caudal margin in posterior half, caudal
margin slightly convex with ventral side
projecting beyond dorsal comer, anterior margin
broadly rounded, ventral margin almost straight
with a concave margin towards the anterior side
(Figs. 1-2). Lateral margin with thin striations.
Anterodorsal corners and posterodorsal comers
with thin hairs (Figs. 3-4).
Antenna with (A2) natatory setae not
reaching tips of claws. ‘Y* organ three
segmented, and apical claw segment small with
slightly shorter claw G2 (Fig. 5).
Maxillula (Mxl ) with palp two segmented,
distal segment with 5 setae; third endite with
two serrated claws (Fig. 6).
Mandible with two segmented protopodite,
a modified exopodite and a three segmented
endopodite. The first podomere (coxa) with
sclerotised teeth (Fig. 7).
The first thoracopod with dl stout and
longer than d2. Claw stout and slightly longer
than the penultimate segment (Fig. 8).
Second thoracopod with longer claw (Fig.
9). Furca with six serrations on the dorsal margin
and with a short seta at the distalmost serration
(Fig. 10). Furcal claw stout and long with series
of large teeth. Distal seta long, slightly shorter
than claw, with a row of fine and delicate setae.
Furcal attachment slightly curved with one large
and two small Triebel’s loops. Dorsal branch
pointed and ventral branch club shaped (Fig. 11).
Remarks: The description given by
George and Martens (1993) agrees well with the
present material collected from the northeastern
region, West Bengal. Astenocypris is placed
within the Cypricercinae by Broodbakker ( 1 983),
based mainly on the presence of Triebel’s loop
in the furcal ramus. The present study agrees
with George and Martens (1993) in placing the
genus Astenocypris in the Subfamily
Cypricercinae, since the characters such as the
presence of three Triebel’s loops, the variation
in size of setae dl and d2 on first thoracopod,
striations in the valve and the solid furca are not
uncommon in Cypricercinae.
I thank the Director, Zoological Survey of
India, Calcutta for facilities. I also thank Dr. N.C.
Nandi, Scientist-SE, S.R. Das and S.K. Das for
support in the field, and A. Sivakumar for typing
the manuscript.
June 6, 1999 K. VENKATARAMAN
Marine Biological Station,
Zoological Survey of India,
100 Santhome High Road,
Chennai 600 028, Tamil Nadu, India.
References
Broodbakker, N.W. (1983): The genus Strandesia and West Indies. Part I. Taxonomy. Bijdragen tot de
other Cypricercini (Crustacea, Ostracoda) in the Dierkumde 53: 327-386.
308
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2), AUG. 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
George, S. & K. Martens (1993): Rediscovery of
Astenocypris papyracea (Sars 1903) (Crustacea,
Ostracoda) in Kerala, India. Zool. J. Linn. Soc.
Lond. 109 : 27-34.
Hartman, G. & H.S. Puri (1974): Summary of
neontological and paleontological classification of
Ostracoda. Mitt. Ham. Zool. Mus. Inst. 70: 7-73.
Muller, G.W. (1912): Ostracoda. In: Schultze, F.E. (ed.)
Das Tierreich, 3 1 , Lieferung. Beilin: Verlag von R.
Friedlander und Sohn. 434 pp.
Victor, R. & C.H. Fernando (1981): Freshwater Ostracods
(Crustacea, Ostracoda) of the subfamily
Dolerocypridinae Triebel, 1961 from Southeast
Asia. Zool. J. Linn. Soc. Lond. 72: 107-1 16.
26. SOME RARE AND UNCOMMON LEGUMES FROM GARHWAL HIMALAYA
( With three text-figures)
Garhwal Himalaya is well known for its
unique vegetation. The area has been explored
by Hooker (1876), Duthie (1903, 1906),
Osmaston ( 1 927), Babu ( 1 977), Naithani ( 1984),
Polunin and Stainton (1985), Gaur (1987), Gaur
et al. (1993), Dangwal and Rawat (1996),
Dangwal et al. ( 1 994, 1 997). During recent plant
explorations in the Garhwal Himalaya, we
collected some interesting, rare and little known
plants of the Family Faboidae (Papilionaceae).
The present communication gives
illustrations of the newly recorded taxa, flowering
and fruiting period, habitat, occurrence,
approximate elevation range, availability and
collector’s herbarium number. The plant
specimens, after being identified, were matched
with authentic specimens from the regional
herbaria housed at Botanical Survey of India,
Northern Circle (BSD), and Forest Research
Institute (DD), Dehra Dun. The voucher
specimens are deposited at the Herbarium
Department of Botany, H.N.B. Garhwal
University (GUH), Srinagar (Garhwal).
Tephrosia Candida DC., Prod. 2: 249.
1825; Baker in Hook, f., F.B.I. 2: 111. 1876;
Duthie, FI. Upp. Gang. Plain 1: 144. 1903;
Osmaston, For. FI. Kumaon 154. 1927; Sanjappa,
Leg. Ind. 256. 1992. (Fig. 1).
FI. & Fr.: August- January.
Distribution: Srinagar Garhwal, Uttar
Pradesh, 580 m above msl.
Remarks: Rare, a limited number of plants
occur in dry localities in open fields along with
Carrisa opaca , Rubus ellipticus. Mimosa
Fig. 1 : Tephrosia Candida DC.
A. Fruiting branch; B. Flower; C. Pod.
himalayana , Rhus parviflora and others.
Specimen examined: L.R.D., G.U.H. -
12,296.
Notes: Hooker (1876) reported this species
from tropical Himalaya to Sikkim and Duthie
(1903) from Dehra Dun. However, Sanjappa
(1992) mentioned its occurrence in tropical
Himalaya to Sikkim, Bihar, Gujarat, Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Sri Lanka, Nepal,
Bhutan, Bangladesh, Burma, and New Zealand.
This is a rare new record for Garhwal Himalaya.
Vicia tenera Grah. ex Benth. In Royle,
Illust. Bot. Himal. 200. 1835; Baker in Hook, f.,
F.B.I. 2: 177. 1876; Sanjappa, Leg. Ind. 271.
1992. (Fig. 2).
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
309
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Fig. 2: Vida tenera Grah.
A. Flowering branch; B. Flower.
Fig. 3: Vigna trilobatus (L.) Verde.
A. Flowering and fruiting branch; B. Flower
FI. & Fr.: March-May.
Distribution: Matiyali, Pauri Garhwal,
700 m above msl.
Remarks: Uncommon, along roadsides
and agricultural fields, in moist places with
Melilotus in die a, Desmodium microphyllum ,
D. triflorvm , Stellaria media and grasses.
Specimen examined: L.R.D., G.U.H. -
16,300.
Notes: Hooker ( 1 876) and Sanjappa ( 1 992)
reported this species from Western Himalaya
(Simla) not stating any locality. This is a rare,
new record from Garhwal Himalaya.
Vigna trilobatus (L.) Verde., Taxon 17:
172. 1968; Naithani, FI. Chamoli 1: 178. 1984.
Phaseolus trilobus Ait.; Baker in Hook, f., F.B.I.
2: 201. 1876. (Fig. 3).
Fi. & Fr.: August-October.
Distribution: Chelusain, Pauri Garhwal,
1700 m above msl.
Remarks: Uncommon. A limited number
of plants were found in dry and shady places on
slopes, associated with Carissa opaca, Berberis
asiatica , Rubus ellipticus, and Rhus parviflora ,
under Pinus roxburghii shelter.
Notes: Hooker (1876) reported it from
Himalaya to Ceylon, Burma and Afghanistan.
However, this is a rare collection after a long
interval of more than 100 years.
AcKNOWLEDG EM ENTS
We thank the authorities of Botanical
Survey of India, Northern Circle (BSD) and
Forest Research Institute (DD), Dehra Dun for
herbarium facilities.
November 1 5, 1 998 L.R. DANGWAL
R.D. GAUR
Department of Botany,
PB. 22, H.N.B Garhwal University,
Srinagar (Garhwal) 246 174,
Uttar Pradesh,
India.
310
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
References
Babu, C.R. (1977): Herbaceous Flora of Dehra Dun.
Publications and Information Directorate (CSIR),
New Delhi.
Dangwal, L.R., D.S. Rawat & R.D. Gaur ( 1 994): Some
Rare and Less Known Legumes from Garhwal
Himalaya. J. Indian bot. Soc. 73 (III & IV): 311-
313.
Dangwal, L.R., D.S. Rawat & D.C. Nautiyal ( 1 997): Some
Rare and Uncommon Legumes from Garhwal
Himalaya. J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 21(1): 47-5 1 .
Dangwal, L.R. & D.S. Rawat (1996): A new species of
Pueraria DC. (Fabaceae) from Garhwal Himalaya,
U.P., India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93(3): 703-
705.
Duthie, J.F. (1903): Flora of the Upper Gangetic Plain.
Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun
(Repr. edn).
Duthie, J.F. (1906): Catalogue of the Plants of Kumaon
and of the adjacent portions of Garhwal and Tibet
based on the collections made by Strachey and
Winterbottom during the years 1 846-1849 and on
the catalogue originally prepared in 1852 by
R. Strachey. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh,
Dehra Dun (Repr. edn).
Gaur, R.D. (1987): A Contribution to the Flora of Srinagar
Garhwal. J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 9: 31-63.
Gaur, R.D., L.R. Dangwal & D.S. Rawat ( 1 993): Some
Rare and little known Plants of Fabaceae from
Garhwal Himalaya. Indian Journal of Forestry
17(1): 80-83.
Hooker, J.D (1876): Flora of British India. Vol. II Bishen
Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun (Repr. edn).
Naithani, B.D. (1984): Flora ofChamoli. Vol. I. Botanical
Survey of India. Howrah.
Osmaston, A.E. (1927): A Forest Flora of Kumaon. Bishen
Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun (Repr. edn).
Polunin, O. & A. Stainton (1985): Flowers of the
Himalaya. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
Sanjappa, M. (1992): Legumes of India. Bishen Singh
Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun.
27. REDISCOVERY OF WENDLANDIA ANG USTIFOLIA WIGHT EX HOOK.F.
(RUB I ACE AE), FROM TAMIL NADU, A SPECIES PRESUMED EXTINCT
(With eleven text-figures )
Wendlandia angustifolia Wight ex
Hook.f., Family Rubiaceae, was first described
by HookJ. (1880) based on Wight’s manuscript
who collected it from Courtallum. Later,
Rangachari collected it from Kannikatti in 1917.
Deb and Maiti who revised the genus opine that
the species is presumed extinct, and efforts should
be made to relocate it in the river beds at low
altitudes, to introduce it in botanic gardens to
conserve the species. However, the species was
rediscovered after a lapse of 81 years, in its
known habitat at Inchikuzhi near Kannikatti
during an inventory of threatened plants of the
Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (KMTR),
Tirunelveli district, Tamil Nadu, in 1998. The
species is described and illustrated.
Wendlandia angustifolia Wight ex Hook,
f., FI. Brit. India 3: 40. 1880; Gamble, FI. Pres.
Madras 588. 1921 (repr. ed. 2: 415. 1957); Deb
& Maiti inNayar & Sastry, Red Data Book Indian
PI. 1: 348. 1987.
Shrub or tree, up to 4 m high. Leaves
temately whorled, linear-lanceolate, attenuate at
base, entire at margin, acute at apex, 4-11 x 0.5-
1.8 cm, coriaceous; lateral nerves 6-8 pairs;
petioles up to 1 cm long; stipules triangular-
ovate, subulate or cuspidate at apex, persistent,
3-5 x 0.8-1 mm. Inflorescence at terminal
branches, in panicles; panicles slender,
pyramidal, leafy below; flowers densely crowded;
bracts ligulate, hastate at base, acuminate at apex,
0.7-0. 9 x 0.3-0. 5 mm. Calyx tube turbinate, 4 to
6 lobed, c. 0.9 x 1 mm; lobes subulate, subequal,
triangular ovate in outline, subulate at apex,
c. 0.6 x 0.2 mm. Corolla white, salverform, 4 to
6 lobed, c. 4x1.2 mm; lobes orbicular, obtuse or
slightly notched at apex, c. 1.1 x 1.1 mm.
Stamens 4-6, epipetalous, between corolla lobes
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2), AUG. 2000
311
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
1 mm
Figs. 1-11: Wendlandia angustifolia : 1. A twig; 2. Inflorescence; 3. Flower; 4. Bract; 5. Calyx;
6. Calyx split open; 7. Corolla split open; 8. Anthers dorsal and ventral sides; 9. Ovary;
10. Fruit; and 1 1 . Seeds.
312
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
exserted; filaments 0.75 x 0.8 mm; anthers pale
yellow, oblong-ovate, dorsifixed, c. 1 x 0.6 mm.
Ovary inferior; style linear, 4. 5-5. 8 x 0.15-0.2
mm; stigma 2-lobed, clavate, c. 0.8 x 0.6 mm.
Fruits globose, rugose, many-seeded, c. 2 mm
across; seeds brown, irregularly oblong-trigonous
or trigonous, c. 0.3 x 0.2 mm.
Note: According to Hook.f. (1880) and
Gamble (1921), flowers are either 4- or 5-
merous. But the flowers in the recent collection
show 4- or 6- merous conditions. Anther colour
yellow is recorded for the first time. Sporadic
populations can be seen along the stream and
river beds between Inchikuzhi and Mundanthurai
in the KMTR.
Specimens examined: Tamil Nadu:
Tirunelveli district: Mundanthurai, 1 6.iii. 1917,
Madras Herbarium South Indian Flora (without
collector an dsine numero) 14628 (MH Acc. No.);
Kannikatti, 1 9 . iii. 1917, Madras Herbarium
South Indian Flora (without collector and sine
numero) 14663 (MH Acc. No.); Inchikuzhi,
+ 1,000 m, 16. ii. 1998, M.B. Viswanathan,
E. Harrison Premkumar and N. Ramesh 1641;
Inchikuzhi, +1,000 m, 24. v. 1998, M.B.
Viswanathan, E. Harrison Premkumar and N.
Ramesh 2010.
AcKNOWLEDG EM ENTS
We thank Dr. N. Sukumaran, Professor &
Head of our Centre, for encouragement, Thiru
K.P.S. Katwal, I.F.S., Addnl. Chief Conservator
of Forests & Chief Wildlife Warden, Chennai,
and Dr. V.K. Melkani, I.F.S., Field Director &
Conservator of Forests, Project Tiger, Tirunelveli,
for permission to collect plant specimens for
authentication.
June 14, 1999 M.B. VISWANATHAN
E. HARRISON PREMKUMAR
N. RAMESH
Sri Paramkalyani Centre for
Environmental Sciences,
Manonmaniam Sundaranar University,
Alwarkurichi 627 412,
Tamil Nadu,
India.
28. LACTUCA GRA CILIFL ORA DC. (ASTERACEAE) — AN ADDITION
TO THE FLORA OF HIMACHAL PRADESH
During a systematic survey of the flora of
Kulu district (Himachal Pradesh) in 1988-1992,
930 species of spermatophytes were gathered.
Out of these, 32 species were found to be
additions to the flora of Himachal Pradesh
(Sharma and Dhaliwal 1997). Meanwhile, a
specimen collected from the district was
identified at Kew Herbarium as Lactuca
graciliflora DC. A perusal of Chowdhery and
Wadhwa (1984) and subsequent reports (Sharma
and Dhaliwal 1997) revealed that this taxon has
not been reported from the State. Further, in the
most recent work on the Asteraceae of India,
Mamgain and Rao (1995) mention the
distribution of this species from Uttar Pradesh,
West Bengal and Sikkim. Earlier, Hooker (1881)
had recorded it from Central and Eastern
Himalaya. Apparently, our record is a westward
extension of the species. Information about the
specimens collected is given below.
Lactuca graciliflora DC. Prodr.
7:139.1839; Hook.f. FI. Brit. India 3:406.1881;
Mamgain and Rao in Hajra et al. FI. India
12:289. f. 71.1995.
Description: Glabrous or minutely hairy
annual or biennial herb, 0.8-1. 5 m tall. Leaves
5-15 x 2-5 cm, membranous; lower triangular,
pinnatifid or pinnate, narrowed to a slender
petiole; uppermost ovate or lanceolate, sessile.
Inflorescence a terminal panicle, 30-60 cm long.
Heads 1 - 1 .3 x 0. 1 -0.2 cm, pink or pinkish-purple,
drooping, with small slender peduncles. Outer
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313
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
involucral bracts 1-1.5 x 0.5-1 mm, ovate; inner
about 1 x 0.15 cm, linear-oblanceolate or oblong.
Achenes 3.5-4 mm long, narrowly oblong or
oblanceolate, smooth, constricted at the top into
a stout beak. Pappus 5-6 mm long, pale white,
deciduous.
The taxon under discussion belongs to
section Mulgedium Cass., which is characterised
by drooping, narrowly cylindrical heads in large
terminal panicles with outer involucral bracts
very small and inner ones long. Within this
section, Lactuca graciliflora has leaves sessile
or narrowed to a slender petiole and small
achenes that are constricted into a short, stout
beak. In other Indian species of the section, the
leaf has a long winged petiole, which is dilated
and auricled at the base, and the elongated
achenes merge with the beak.
Refer
Chowdhery, H.J. & B.M. Wadhwa (1984): Flora of
Himachal Pradesh, Analysis. 3 vols. Botanical
Survey of India, Howrah, Calcutta.
Hooker, J.D. (1881): Flora of British India. Vol. 3. L. Reeve
&Co., London.
Mamgain, S.K. & R.R. Rao (1995): Tribe Cichorieae
FI. & Fr.: August-November.
Ecology: A high altitude species, collected
on alpine slopes at 3,000-4,000 m above msl.
Illustration: Mamgain and Rao ( loc . cit.).
Material examined: Jalori Pass, coll. D.S.
Dhaliwal 15500 (PUN).
Acknowledgement
We are obliged to Dr. V.J. Nair, Indian
Liaison Officer at Kew Herbarium for the
identification.
June 13, 1998 M. SHARMA
D.S. DHALIWAL
Department of Botany,
Punjabi University,
Patiala 147 002, Punjab, India.
; n c e s
Dumortier. In: Hajra, P.K., R.R. Rao, D.K. Singh
& B.P. Uniyal (eds.). Flora of India. Vol. 12.
Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta.
Sharma, M. & D.S. Dhaliwal (1997): Additions to the
flora of Himachal Pradesh from Kulu district.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 94(2): 447-450.
29. ANAPHALIS BUSUA (BUCH.-HAM. EX D. DON) DC., (FAMILY: ASTERACEAE)
— AN INTERESTING NEW RECORD FROM BIJNOR (U.P.), INDIA
The genus Anaphalis DC (Family
Asteraceae) comprises about 35 species and in
India all except one are confined to higher
altitudes between 1,320 m and 5,610 m.
Anaphalis busua is reported from Dehra Dun
(990-1,320 m), Himalaya (1,800-3,600 m),
Nainital (1,920 m) and Simla (2,190 m).
During a survey of the flowering plants of
Bijnor, a district of western Uttar Pradesh (29° 2'-
29° 58’ N, 78° 0'-79° 5’ E) 218-275 m above msl,
a small population of Anaphalis busua was found
at Balawali, growing on an embankment of the
River Ganga. A brief description of the taxon
and other pertinent data are given here.
Anaphalis busua (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don)
DC. Prodr. 6: 275.1838. Gnaphalium busuam
Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Prodr. 173.1825.
Anaphalis araneosa DC. Prodr. 275.1838; FI.
Brit. Ind. 3: 283.1881.
An erect, branched herb up to 1 m high.
Leaves linear-lanceolate, white woolly abaxially,
margins revolute, apex acute, unicostate, sessile
base decurrent. Capitula in large terminal
corymbose clusters, fragrant; each head c. 3.5
cm across, involucral bracts white-woolly,
obtuse.
FI. & Fr.: September-December.
Material examined: Athar s.n. Balawali;
314
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Department of Botany Herbarium, Aligarh
Muslim University, Aligarh.
This is the first record of the taxon at such
a low altitude (218-275 m above msl).
December 27, 1 999 ATHAR ALI KHAN
Department of Botany,
Aligarh Muslim University,
Aligarh 202 002, Uttar Pradesh, India.
30. THE IDENTITY OF HYGROPHILA BENGALENSIS MANDAL ETAL,
(FAMILY: ACANTHACEAE)
Mandal et al. (1997) described a new
species of Hygrophila Br. (Acanthaceae) namely
H. bengalensis Mandal Bhattacharjee et Nayek
based on the collections of S.K. Mandal from
Gorekhara, Sonarpur, 24-Parganas (South), West
Bengal.
While establishing the new taxon, the
authors stated that the new species is allied to
H. salicifolia Nees and it differs in having
“obovate to elliptic lanceolate leaves with
undulated margin; yellow flowers; persistent
calyx with marginal hairs; long slender style with
articulated stigma; seeds 24-30, arranged
alternately, attached by the recurved hook-shaped
retinacula. Seeds testa with mucilaginous woolly
hairs; arillated at the top, and ventrally notched.”
But a careful study of the protologue reveals that
the morphological characters of H. bengalensis
Mandal et al. are identical with H. erecta (Burm.
f) Hochr. Study of the type and other specimens
deposited at (CAL) also revealed that this newly
described taxon H. bengalensis Mandal et al. is
identical with H. erecta (Burm. /) Hochr.
Further, it is to be noted that some of the
differentiating characters like “persistent calyx”;
“recurved retinacula” and “testa with
mucilaginous woolly hairs” are the common
generic characters of Hygrophila Br. Moreover,
none of the type specimens of H. bengalensis
Mandal et al. have the “obovate leaves” as
mentioned in the protologue.
Since H. bengalensis Mandal et al. and
H. erecta (Burm. /.) Hochr. are conspecific,
H. bengalensis Mandal et al. becomes, a
superfluous name of H. erecta (Burm./) Hochr.
The present status of H. bengalensis Mandal et
al. is as follows :
Hygrophila erecta (Burm. /) Hochr. in
candollea 15: 210. 1935.
Ruellia erecta Burm./, FI. Ind. 135. t. 41,
/ 3.1768.
Type: Rheede, Hort. Malabaricus 9 : 119.
/. 61. 1669 (Repr. - 2 : 89./ 46. 1983).
Hygrophila quadrivalvis Nees, PI. Asiat.
Rar. 3 : 80. 1826; Clarke in Hook. / FI Brit.
India 4. 408. 1885.
Type: Wall. Cat. num. list no. 237 4, 2374B-
D microf. - CAL!
H. bengalensis Mandal et al. in J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 94(3): 546-548. 1997 Syn. Nov.
Type: Holotype - Gorekhara, Sonarpur, 24-
Parganas (S). West Bengal. S.K. Mandal;
30. i. 1996; 1216A (CAL!) isotype - 1216 B-D
(CAL!).
November 15, 1998 S. MITRA
S. BANDYOPADHYAY
Botanical Survey of India,
Botanic Garden, Howrah 3,
West Bengal, India.
■ ■ ■
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2). AUG. 2000
315
ERRATA
Kindly replace the contents page of Vol. 97(1), April 2000, with the page overleaf
VOLUME 97 (1): APRIL 2000
Date of Publication: 1-4-2000
CONTENTS
EDITORIAL 1
POPULATION AND ECOLOGY OF THE INDIAN FOX VULPES BENGALENSIS AT
ROLLAPADU WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA
(With six text-figures)
By Ranjit Manakadan and Asad Rafi Rahmani 3
BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE MALABAR GREY HORNBILL ( OCYCEROS GRISEUS)
IN SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS, INDIA
( With one text-figure)
By Divya Mudappa 15
SOCIOECONOMIC TRANSITION AND WILDLIFE CONSERVATION IN THE INDIAN
TRANS-HIMALAYA
ByCharudutt Mishra 25
AN ECOLOGICAL STUDY OF CROCODILES IN RUHUNA NATIONAL PARK,
SRI LANKA
( With three text-figures)
By Charles Santiapillai, Mangala de Silva, Sarath Dissanayake, B.V.R. Jayaratne
and S. Wijeyamohan 33
SEXUAL HARASSMENT AMONG FEMALE LION-TAILED MACAQUES {MAC AC A
SILENUS) IN THE WILD
( With three text-figures)
By Aj ith Kumar 42
SEASONAL CHANGES OF TROPICAL FOREST BIRDS IN THE SOUTHERN
WESTERN GHATS
( With seven text-figures)
By E.A. Jayson and D.N. Mathew 52
PLODIA INTERPUNCTELLA (HUBNER) (PHYCITIDAE : LEPIDOPTERA) AS A
POTENTIAL PEST OF DRY FRUITS
By S.P. Rad, H.R. Pajni and Neelima Talwar 62
FRESHWATER CLADOCERA (CRUSTACEA : BRANCHIOPODA) OF THE
ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS
( With one text-figure)
By K. Venkataraman 67
LONGICORN BEETLES (CERAMBYCINAE, PRIONINAE : CERAMBYCIDAE) OF
BUXA TIGER RESERVE, JALPAIGURI, WEST BENGAL
( With twelve text-figures)
By Dinendra Raychaudhuri and Sumana Saha 74
FISHES OF THE CYPRINID GENUS SEMIPLOTUS BLEEKER 1859, WITH
DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES FROM MANIPUR, INDIA
( With one text-figure and one plate)
By Waikhom Vishwanath and Laishram Kosygin 92
FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF INDIAN BARBETS, MEGALAIMA SPP.
( With three text-figures)
By Hafiz S.A. Yahya 103
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CONTENTS
EDITORIAL 175
PHEASANT ABUNDANCE IN SELECTIVELY LOGGED AND UNLOGGED
FORESTS OF WESTERN ARUNACHAL PRADESH, NORTHEAST INDIA
( With one text-figure)
Aparajita Datta 177
FLORAL DIVERSITY OF GORIGANGA VALLEY IN THE CENTRAL
HIMALAYAN HIGHLANDS
( With one text- figure)
M.K. Pandit, Arun Bhaskar and Virendra Kumar 184
HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS OF BUTTERFLIES IN THE PARAMBIKULAM
WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, KERALA, INDIA
( With one text-figure)
V.V. Sudheendrakumar, C.F. Binoy, P.V. Suresh and George Mathew 193
GROWTH PATTERN OF MANGROVES IN THE GULF OF KUTCH
( With three text-figures)
H.S. Singh 202
THE STATUS OF MONGOOSES (FAMILY : HERPESTIDAE) IN RUHUNA
NATIONAL PARK, SRI LANKA
( With two text-figures)
Charles Santiapillai, Mangala De Silva and S.R.B. Dissanayake 208
AVIAN SPECIES INVOLVED IN POLLINATION AND SEED DISPERSAL OF
SOME FORESTRY SPECIES IN HIMACHAL PRADESH
M. L. Narang, R.S. Rana and Mukesh Prabhakar 215
STUDIES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE LABIAL TEETH ROW
STRUCTURE IN RANA CURTIPES JERDON TADPOLES
( With one plate)
Jinesh James, Thomas T. Valamparampil and Oommen V. Oommen 223
BURROW PATTERN OF INDIAN METAD MILLARDIA {. RATTUS) MELTADA
GRAY
( With one text-figure)
N. K. Pandey and A.S. Bhadauna . 230
A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY
NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY — 38. PASSERINAE
Saras wathy Unnithan 234
PITFALL TRAP SAMPLING OF TROPICAL CARABIDS (CARABIDAE :
COLEOPTERA) — EVALUATION OF TRAPS, PRESERVATIVES AND
SAMPLING FREQUENCY
S Vennila and D. Rajagopal 241
NEW DESCRIPTIONS 247
REVIEWS 269
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 271
Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 103 and
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IlMAL
X
Ml THE
BOMBAY NATURAE HISTORY SOCIETY
DECEMBER 2000
Vol. 97 (3)
r
A
M.R. ALMEIDA
BOARD OF EDITORS
Editor
J.C. DANIEL
AJITH KUMAR
M.K. CHANDRASHEKARAN
T.C. NARENDRAN
B.F. CHHAPGAR
A.R. RAHMANI
R. GADAGKAR
J.S. SINGH
INDRANEIL DAS
R. WHITAKER
A.J.T. JOHNSINGH
s
Assistant Editor
GAYATRI WATTAL UGRA
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5. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabetically
arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals in
italics and titles of books or papers in roman type, thus:
Aluri, Raju J.S. & C. Subha Reddi (1995): Ecology of the pollination in two cat-mint
species. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(1): 63-66.
Prater, S.H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History Society,
Mumbai, pp. 35-48.
6. Each paper should be accompanied by an abstract, normally not exceeding 200
words, and 6-8 key words. Key Words should include the scientific names of important
species discussed.
7. 25 reprints will be supplied free of cost to authors of main articles. In the case of
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contribution earlier than a non-member’s.
Hornbill House,
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Editors,
Journal of the Bombay
Natural History Society
VOLUME 97 (3): DECEMBER
Date of Publication: 1-12-2000
CONTENTS
EDITORIAL 317
DISTRIBUTION, DEMOGRAPHY AND CONSERVATION STATUS OF THE INDIAN
SARUS CRANE (GRUS ANTIGONE ANTIGONE) IN INDIA
( With nine text-figures)
K.S. Gopi Sundar, Jatinder Kaur and B.C. Choudhury 319
LIVESTOCK DEPREDATION BY WOLVES IN THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD
SANCTUARY, NANNAJ (MAHARASHTRA), INDIA
( With three text-figures)
Satish Kumar and Asad R. Rahmani 340
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND CONSERVATION OF THE GOLDEN LANGUR
TRACHYPITHECUS GEEI KHAJURIA IN TRIPURA, NORTHEAST INDIA
( With seven text-figures)
A.K. Gupta and David J. Chivers 349
OVIPOSITION BEHAVIOUR OF THREE INTRASPECIFIC VARIANTS OF THE
VISCERAL LEISHMANIASIS (KALA-AZAR) VECTOR PHLEBOTOMUS
ARGENTIPES
( With one text-figure)
K. Ilango 363
FOOD HABITS AND ACTIVITY PATTERN OF THE COMMON OTTER LUTRA LUTRA
NAIR (F. CUVIER) AT PICHAVARAM, TAMIL NADU, SOUTH INDIA
G. Umapathy 367
FEEDING POTENTIAL OF CASSIDA CIRCUMDATA HERBST (CHRY SOMELID AE :
COLEOPTERA) ON IPOMOEA REPTANS (LINN.) (CONVOLVULACEAE)
( With one text-figure)
M. John George and Ipe M. Ipe 370
HABITAT PREFERENCES AND DISTRIBUTIONAL STATUS OF SOME FOREST
BIRDS IN ANDAMAN ISLANDS
K. Yoganand and Priya Davidar 375
FORAGING BEHAVIOUR OF CARPENTER BEES (GENUS XYLOCOPA :
XYLOCOPIDAE : HYMEN OPTERA) AND THE POLLINATION OF SOME INDIAN
PLANTS
Aluri Jacob Solomon Raju and C. Subba Reddi 381
DIVERSITY AND SPECIES-ABUNDANCE DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN THE
TROPICAL FORESTS OF SILENT VALLEY, KERALA
( With three text-figures)
E.A. Jayson and D.N. Mathew 390
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
A NEW SPECIES OF ACHLYA (PHYCOMYCETES) FROM RIVERINE WATERS
( With one text-figure)
R.V. Gandhe and M.J. Desale 400
THREE NEW SPECIES OF PTEROMALIDAE (HYMENOPTERA : CHALCIDOIDEA)
FROM INDIA
( With fifteen text-figures)
P.M. Sureshan and T.C. Narendran
403
GARRA ELONGATA , A NEW SPECIES OF THE SUBFAMILY GARRINAE
FROM MANIPUR, INDIA (CYPRINIDAE, CYPRINIFORMES)
( With one plate and one text-figure)
Waikhom Vishwanath and Laishram Kosygin 408
REVIEWS
1 . PRIMATES OF NORTHEAST INDIA
Reviewed by Meghana Gavand 415
2. GREEN POLITICS
Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani . 415
3 . THE FRESHWATER FISHES OF THE INDIAN REGION
Reviewed by B.F. Chhapgar 416
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
MAMMALS
1 . Malayan tree shrews Tupaia glis (Diard)
By Prakash Dash 418
2. Range overlap in dhole Cuon alpinus Pallas
and wolf Cams lupus Linn. (Family: Canidae),
in India
By A.J.T. Johnsingh and K. Yoganand 418
3. The species of the wildcat in India : A
comment on ‘The desert cat in Panna National
Park’ JBNHS, Vol. 96(1)
By Peter J ackson 419
4. Kanha National Park becomes a new nidus
for elephant schistosomiasis
By K.P. Singh and M.C. Agrawal 420
5 . Sight record of metad Millardia meltada Gray
(Family: Murinae) around Ratnagiri, Western
Ghat region
By Arvind Bharos 423
BIRDS
6. Lesser frigate bird Fregata minor aldabrensis
Mathews a rare record from Salim Ali Bird
Sanctuary, Thattakad, Kerala
By R. Sugathan and K.K. Sivan 423
7. Purple heron Ardea purpurea (Linn.)
(Ardeidae) water hyacinth Eichhornia
crassipes (Pontederiaceae)
By Aeshita Mukherjee and B.M. Parasharya.... 424
8. Pallas's fishing eagle Haliaeetus leucoiyphus
(Pallas) pirates fish from an otter Lutra lutra
(Linn.)
By Bibhuti Prasad Lahkar 425
9. Group size and vigilance in Indian peafowl
Pavo cristatus (Linn.), Family: Phasianidae
By Shahla Yasmin and H.S.A. Yahya 425
10. Eggs in the diet of the sarus crane Grus
antigone (Linn.)
By K.S. Gopi Sundar 428
11. Circumstantial evidence of breeding of the
Nilgiri wood pigeon Columba elphinstonii
(Sykes) at Nandi hills, near Bangalore
By S. Karthikeyan 429
1 2. Use of plastic as nest material by golden oriole
Oriolus oriolus (Linn.) Family: Oriolidae
By Lavkumar Khacher 430
1 3 . Competition for food between a garden lizard
Calotes versicolor (Daudin) and a magpie
robin Copsychus saularis Linn.
By Si manta Kumar Kalita .431
1 4. Purplerumped sunbird Nectarinia zeylonica
(Linn.) at Gandhinagar. Gujarat
By Lavkumar Khacher 431
15. Nesting of Ploceus philippinus (Linn.) and
Ploceus manyar (Horsfield) on mangrove and
associated species in Coringa Wildlife
Sanctuary, Andhra Pradesh
By C. Srinivasulu, V. Vasudeva Rao and
V. Nagulu 432
REPTILES
1 6. First record of Psammophilus blanfordanus
(Stoliczka 1871) (Family: Agamidae) from
Gujarat, India
By Raju Vyas 432
1 7. Rediscovery of two rare typhlopids, Typhlops
thurstoni Boettger, 1 890 and T. tindalli Smith,
1943 from Kerala
ByV.P.Ajit 434
AMPHIBIA
18. Amphibian fauna of Kudremukh National
Park, Western Ghats, India
By S.V. Krishnamurthy and S. A. Hussain
436
FISHES
19. On a report of Pristolepis marginatus Jerdon
(Perci formes : Percoidei : Nandidae) from
Karnataka
By K. Rema Devi, T.J. Indra,
M.S. Ravichandran and M.B. Raghunathan 440
20. On a report of Tetraodon (Monotretus)
travancoricus, from south Kanara,
Karnataka, India
By K. Rema Devi, T.J. Indra and
M.B. Raghunathan 441
21. Fish fauna of Idukki and Neyyar Wildlife
Sanctuaries southern Kerala, India
By K. Raju Thomas, C.R. Biju,
C.R. Ajithkumar and M. John George 443
PROCHORDATA
22. Ecteinascidia sluiteri Herdman
(Perophoridae), a new record of a colonial
ascidian (Prochordata) to Indian waters
By V.K. Meenakshi and S.Venugopal 446
INSECTS
23. Additional notes on a Himalayan Satyrid
Dallacha hyagriva (Moore) Family:
Satyridae, Lepidoptera
By Narender Sharma and H.S. Rose 448
24. An aggregation of butterflies at Hyderabad,
Andhra Pradesh
By Muhamed Jafer Palot 450
25. New host plants for two tropical butterflies at
Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh
By J.B. Atluri, S.P. Venkata Ramana and
C. Subba Reddi 452
OTHER INVERTEBRATES
26. Some freshwater molluscs from eastern and
central Nepal
By Bharat R. Subba and Tapan K. Ghosh 452
27. An interesting method of catching marine
crabs
By Arvind Bharos 456
BOTANY
28. On the occurrence of Leea macrophylla Roxb.
(Vitaceae) in Rajasthan state
By Satish Kumar Sharma 456
29. On a collection of Bauhinia acuminata Linn.
(Leguminosae : Caesalpinioideae) from
Myanmar
By S. Bandy opadhy ay 457
30. Achillea millefolium Linn. (Asteraceae) —
A new record for Kerala state
By S.P. Jain, J. Singh and S.C. Singh 458
3 1 . New record of plants from Orissa — II
By H.N. Subudhi, B.P. Choudhury and
B.C. Acharya 459
Cover photograph: Lion-tailed Macaque
Macaca silenus by Ajith Kumar
Editorial
From being virtually unknown in the early 1960s, the lion-tailed macaque Macaca silenus
(Linn.) is today one of the most studied species in India. Interest in the lion-tailed macaque
began following a 3-month study by Y. Sugiyama in 1965, in the Cardamom hills. It was
not until a decade later, however, that the first long-term ecological study on the species
began, by Steven Green in Agasthyamalai hills. Perhaps the establishment of a field station
in Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary in 1978, by G.U. Kurup of the Zoological Survey of
India, was a turning point in research on the lion- tailed macaque. This paved the way for
several studies, on the species, in the Anamalai hills, in the next two decades. The only
long-term study, on the species, outside of this area, was in the Silent Valley by
K.K. Ramachandran and Jiji Joseph of Kerala Forest Research Institute.
Nearly three decades of research has considerably increased our knowledge on all
aspects of the species, and its conservation problems. Among the first achievements was
an upward revision of the geographical range, as well as of the wild population. Whereas
Steven Green estimated the wild population to be about 600 animals in 1977, studies in the
Anamalai hills and surveys in other parts, in the 1980s, gave an estimate of 4,000-5,000
animals. Particularly important in this context was a brief survey by Ullas Karanth, which
reported a potentially large population in Karnataka, an area that was considered
unimportant by Steven Green. Recent surveys by Mewa Singh and his colleagues indicate
that the northern limit might extend considerably beyond the Sharavati river.
We now have a better appreciation of the adaptations of the lion- tailed macaque to
the relative stability of the tropical rain forest, in the Western Ghats, to which it is endemic.
Since it meets its energy needs primarily from simple carbohydrates in fruits, and protein
from foliage insects, the high plant species richness and large areas of habitat, in the
tropical rain forest, is critical for the survival of the species. With a remarkably low birth
rate and high age at first birth, it is incapable of rapid population growth, and is critically
dependent on low mortality rates for survival. Viewed in the light of its adaptations, the
higher population estimate that we now have does not make us very optimistic. This is
because the tropical rain forest, in the Western Ghats, has been severely fragmented and
logged, and hunting is chronic in many places, all factors to which the lion-tailed macaque
is ill-adapted. Studies in the last decade on the small isolated populations, in the Anamalai
hills, show that many of these might be declining as indicated by very low birth rates and
a low proportion of immatures in the population.
The same studies, however, also reveal the extent of adaptive flexibility of the species,
and the possibility that with a lot of will and some ingenuity we can retain the populations
in forest fragments. The lion-tailed macaque has responded to the drastic reduction in
foliage insects, in the forest fragments, by shifting to invertebrates and lower vertebrates,
such as lizards and skinks on the forest floor. It has responded to the drastic reduction in
habitat area and plant species richness in forest fragments by feeding on fruits of plants
cultivated around the fragments, such as coffee and jack-fruit, or weeds such as lantana or
other colonising species on the forest edges. Thus, populations in forest fragments with
more ‘friendly’ edges have fared better than those which do not, for example a fragment
surrounded by tea estates. It is possible, therefore, to retain the species in relatively small
patches of forests, if we promote land use practices that are friendly to conservation.
Studies on amphibians, reptiles, birds, rodents, small carnivores, flying squirrels,
and butterflies have followed those on the lion-tailed macaque in forest fragments, in the
Anamalai hills. These attempts reveal the complex ecological changes, in the animal
communities, that are taking place in the forest fragments, changes that include extinctions,
invasions and decline, as well as increase in densities. More importantly, these small
fragments of forests have been found to retain many endemic species of lower vertebrates,
even several decades after the landscape was severely fragmented. Many of these may not
occur elsewhere. New species of amphibians have also been described from these patches
of forest (e.g. Rhacophorus psuedomalabaricus , by V. Karthikeyan). There is now thus, a
far greater appreciation of the conservation values, for the rain forest patches, in the Western
Ghats.
Our understanding of the basic ecology, life-history and behaviour of the lion-tailed
macaque has increased so much after nearly three decades of research, that this species has
now become an ideal model to examine many interesting ecological and behavioural
processes. The amazing variety of landscape situations, which the species inhabits also
provides an ideal experimental setup. The ongoing research agenda for the species includes
parental investment, host-parasite relationship in fragmented populations, genetic
consequences of population fragmentation, reproductive physiology and behaviour in small
populations, dominance interactions, plant-animal interactions, and resource partitioning.
Several research organisations and forest departments are involved in this effort. Realizing
that the management of small populations in the wild has a lot in common with the
management of captive populations, there is also a move to put into practice the lessons
learnt from research in the wild, in establishing a captive breeding colony. Apart from the
conservation of the lion-tailed macaque, research on this species, in the coming years,
would address issues in basic sciences, as well as ecological, behavioural and other processes
that affect the survival of fragmented populations. An understanding of these processes is
necessary in the context of the extinction crisis, facing us today, resulting largely from
habitat fragmentation.
AJITH KUMAR
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology,
Govt of India,
FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL.
JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
December 2000 Vol. 97 No. 3
DISTRIBUTION, DEMOGRAPHY AND CONSERVATION STATUS OF
THE INDIAN SARUS CRANE (GRUS ANTIGONE ANTIGONE) IN INDIA1
K.S. Gopi Sundar, Jatinder Kaur and B.C. Choudhury2
( With nine text-figures )
Key words: Indian sarus crane, Grus antigone antigone, encounter rate, distribution,
breeding population, recruitment, habitat use, conservation.
A district-level survey to determine the distribution, demography and status of the Indian sarus
crane (Grus antigone antigone ) was carried out between June 1998 and March 1999 in the states
of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Maharashtra. The survey discovered populations in
Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh, which are areas where sarus cranes have not been
recorded since 1983. A total of 1,761 sarus were counted, and the districts with the highest
encounter rates were Mainpuri and Etawah in Uttar Pradesh. The distribution range of the sarus
crane in India has been drawn. The sarus crane population in India was seen to have an overall
low percentage of breeding pairs in the population, and few juveniles, suggesting low recruitment.
Factors significantly affecting the breeding are discussed. The cranes were seen to breed practically
throughout the year, with two major peaks in February-March and July-August. Changes in land
use patterns are presumed to affect habitat use by sarus cranes. The attitude of the local people
towards the species is not conducive to the conservation of the vagile species. The implications
of the above factors on the conservation of the species are discussed.
Introduction
The sarus crane (Grus antigone) is the only
crane species breeding south of the Himalayas
and the only resident crane in India (Ali and
Ripley 1980). Although previously widespread
in south Asia, recent developmental activities
within its range of distribution have reduced the
range and the population of the species (Gole
1989, Meine and Archibald 1996). Three extant
subspecies are recognised, and all three are
'Accepted September, 1999
2Wildlife Institute of India
P.B. 18,Chandrabani,
Dehra Dun 248 001 , Uttaranchal, India.
known to be distinct in their habitat requirements
and have different distribution ranges (Archibald
and Meine 1996). The Indian sarus crane (Grus
a. antigone) is the largest of the three subspecies
and is currently found in Pakistan (C. Mirande
in lift.) and India. It was found in Bangladesh as
well, but may have become extinct (Meine and
Archibald 1996). The sarus is held in religious
regard in India, depicted in epics (Leslie 1998)
and has cultural values attributed to it. The habit
of pairing for life has given sarus cranes an iconic
status in several places and they are zealously
protected (Gole 1996). Research on the sarus
crane has so far concentrated mostly on local
status surveys (Parasharya et al. 1 989, Singh and
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
319
CONSER VA TION STA TUS OF THE INDIAN SARDS CRANE
Khan 1989, Tatu 1999, Vyas 1999a). Information
on imprinting, nidification and diet are available
(Law 1930, Ali 1958, Ghorpade 1975) and work
on certain aspects of breeding ecology and
behaviour has been carried out in select localities
(Ramachandran and Vijayan 1994, Vyas 1999b).
A national survey to determine the distribution
and status of the species was carried out in select
states (Gole 1989). It is widely believed that sarus
crane populations are declining all over India,
and several people have expressed concern (e.g.
S. Subramaniam in lift.).
We present information on the present
distribution, aspects of demography, and
conservation status of the Indian subspecies
(henceforth referred to as sarus crane), based on
two surveys carried out in 1998-99 in its historic
distribution range. The survey was carried out
exactly a decade after the first all-India survey
by Gole (1989), and was aimed at identifying
changes, if any, in distribution, population
characteristics and status of the species in India.
Sarus cranes in India were known to be
distributed in the states of Haryana, Gujarat,
Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and
a small population from Maharashtra (Archibald
and Meine 1996). Anecdotal reports are available
from Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh,
though their present status in these states is not
reported (Gole 1996, Grimmett et al. 1998). In
all the states, the sarus crane has suffered due to
changing land use patterns that have degraded
the natural landscape, particularly natural
wetlands (Meine and Archibald 1996). This may
be the main reason behind the apparent decline
(Fig. 1) in their distribution range (Murray 1 890,
Ali and Ripley 1980, Johnsgard 1983, Gole 1989,
Archibald and Meine 1996). The sarus crane is
presently protected by the Indian Wildlife
(Protection) Act 1972 under Schedule IV. It is
considered internationally threatened and is
proposed to be placed in the ‘Endangered’
category under criteria Alb,c,d,e by the IUCN.
It is also in Appendix II of the CITES convention.
The recent Conservation Action Plan by Meine
and Archibald (1996) suggests that the species
be moved to Category I of the IUCN and
Appendix I of the CITES convention.
Study Area
The survey included the states of Jammu
& Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana,
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Maharashtra.
The second author surveyed Rajasthan, Punjab,
Gujarat and Maharashtra; the first author
surveyed the rest of the states, and both surveyed
Himachal Pradesh. Surveys were carried out
twice, since sarus crane distribution is known to
change with cropping pattern (Archibald and
Meine 1996). The first survey was earned out in
summer (henceforth referred to as ‘summer
survey’) during May to October 1998. The main
crops grown during this season in the survey
areas were paddy, sugarcane and soyabean. The
second survey was carried out in winter
(henceforth referred to as ‘winter survey’) from
December 1998 to March 1999. The main crops
grown during this season in the areas surveyed
were wheat and mustard. The survey was spread
over a year to obtain data on population status of
the species and to determine breeding cycles in
the sarus crane, since previous observations
suggest that it has an asynchronous breeding that
differs from place to place, depending on local
conditions (Gole 1989, Ramachandran and
Vijayan 1994). Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal
Pradesh and West Bengal formed the outer fringe
of the previously known sarus crane range of
distribution (Gole 1996) and the species had not
been reported here since Johnsgard (1983).
Material and Methods
A rapid district level survey was carried
out in the states mentioned above in two seasons.
Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and West
320
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
CONSER VA TIONSTA TUS OF THE INDIAN SARUS CRANE
Meine & Archibald 1996
Fig. 1: Shrinking distribution range of sarus crane in India drawn from literature
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
321
CONSER VA TION STA TUS OF THE INDIAN SARUS CRANE
Bengal were surveyed only in winter, and in two
districts each, after secondary information
suggested that these states might have a few
individuals. Bihar could not be surveyed in winter
due to unsteady political conditions. Districts that
comprised the historic distribution range were
visited to determine the presence, habitat use and
status of the sarus.
Two methods were adopted to determine
the abundance of sarus cranes in each district:
1 . Transects (road or rail routes, referred
to as ‘road transect’ and ‘rail transect’
respectively) were undertaken on an ad hoc basis
to ascertain abundance and habitat use patterns
by the sarus crane. This consisted of travelling
by road on a pre-determined route and counting
all the sarus cranes seen on either side of the
road. In rail transects, both sides were monitored
in some cases, but counts were usually made on
one side only. Road transects were undertaken
by a motor-bike, jeep or bus, counting sarus
cranes seen on both sides of the road in all cases.
Locations were recorded, using milestones. A
Garmin 1 2 Global Positioning System was used
in winter to record the locations of all sightings.
Transects were selected to maximize possibility
of sighting sarus cranes, based on published and
local information.
2. Wetlands were visited, either while
undertaking the transect or independently,
chosen to maximize the chance of sarus crane
sightings based on available literature and local
information. ‘Point counts’ i.e. counts of all sarus
cranes in a wetland and its immediate periphery,
were done, using 7 x 50 binoculars from a
vantage point. If the wetland was too big to be
scanned from one place, the complete
circumference was walked and all sarus cranes
present were counted.
In addition, locals were shown colour
plates of the species, and information on
important nesting and roosting sites, foraging
grounds, approximate number present in the
vicinity, and attitude of the locals towards the
species were collected.
If sarus cranes were not sighted, even after
a transect was carried out, three wetlands visited
and local people interviewed, and the secondary
information did not confirm their presence, they
were considered absent in the district. Data were
analysed separately for the whole range of
distribution and for each state. Encounter rates
were calculated for all transects undertaken,
using the simple relationship:
Number of sarus cranes counted
Encounter on the transect (abundance)
rate = —
Total length of the transect (in km)
The winter transects and point counts in
some districts were the same areas surveyed in
the summer. Residential sarus cranes may have
been recounted during the second survey.
Demographic parameters calculated were:
i. Percentage breeding population —
defined as percentage of sarus crane pairs seen
with eggs or young.
ii. Juvenile to adult ratio — chicks,
juveniles and subadults (as defined by Ali and
Ripley 1980) were clubbed together as ‘juveniles’
for the analysis, as they were in low numbers
when counted separately. ‘Recruitment’ is
defined as the number of juveniles counted.
Definitions of other terms used are
indicated below:
‘Pairs’ were defined as two sarus cranes
seen together, presumed to be one male and a
female. These were differentiated from ‘family’,
which consisted of a pair with young. ‘Groups’
were differentiated from ‘congregations’ based
on the number of individuals seen together — 5
to 20 birds together were called ‘groups’ and any
group having more than 20 birds was defined as
a ‘congregation’. Three or four adults seen
together were designated as ‘groups’, except in
cases when it was apparent that one (or two) of
the cranes were being tended by the other two
322
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(3). DEC 2000
C-ONSER VA TION STA TUS OF THE INDIAN SARUS CRANE
birds; then the former were regarded as offspring
of the latter and the group was regarded as a
‘family’.
Population estimates were not calculated
from the survey results owing to three different
methods used in conjunction, variation in time
period of survey, and the biased methods of
transects and wetland visits.
Results and Discussion
Abundance and encounter rates: The
survey covered a total of 1 1 states, 1 12 districts
and 143 points (transects and wetlands). A total
of 1,761 sarus individuals were counted, of which
772 were counted in the summer survey and 989
during the winter survey. Table 1 gives details of
the districts surveyed, number of sarus cranes
counted, calculated encounter rates, survey
method(s), and the major crop(s) being grown
in each district. Most of the sarus cranes were
encountered in Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. In
most places, more sarus cranes were encountered
during the winter survey. Let us consider each
state separately for the discussion.
Jammu & Kashmir: Only two districts
were visited, based on secondary information
received. A pair of sarus cranes was counted in
one district. Information collected indicated that
there were three more pairs in the same district.
They did not seem to occur elsewhere in the state.
The pair encountered was seen to breed by the
locals, but no young have been observed. The
wetland is very close to the Indo-Pakistan border,
and is constantly disturbed by firing from both
sides. There are several instances of poaching in
the area (A. Rahmani in lift.) and the birds are
not spared on either side of the border. This
species has not been reported from this region
since Johnsgard (1983).
Himachal Pradesh: Here also, sarus
cranes were seen in one of the two surveyed
districts. They have been sighted earlier in the
Pong Dam area since 1995 (Lopez and Mundkur
1997 and S. Pandey, pers. comm.), and the
numbers have increased since. We recorded a
juvenile among the seven birds sighted, and the
locals confirmed their breeding within the
district. In Kulu, we were informed of a pair of
sarus cranes that used to reside in the district.
One of the pair died of a collision with high-
tension power lines and the other was shot by
poachers. No sarus cranes have been seen in the
district since.
Punjab: Except for a stray record from
Hoshiarpur district, obtained as secondary
information from locals, there was no sign of
the species. Poaching, conversion of natural
wetlands to sugarcane and other agricultural
fields, and other factors seem to have displaced
the species from the state.
Haryana: The state was known to have
substantial numbers of the sarus crane (Gole
1989). For the past three years, the state has
suffered various degrees of drought, resulting in
the drying up of natural wetlands. The few
sightings in the state were in protected areas
(Bhindawas Wildlife Sanctuary and Sultanpur
Bird Sanctuary) where the water level is
maintained by a system of canals. Sultanpur Bird
Sanctuary used to host populations of up to 80
sarus cranes, several of which used to breed in
the sanctuary (R.D. Jakati , pers. comm.), which
has lost its appeal as a suitable habitat owing to
the drought. Information from locals suggested
that 10-15 birds are present in Panipat district.
A few pairs have been sighted from trains in
Palwal district as well, subsequent to the survey
period (A. Kumar in lift.).
Rajasthan: Most of the 21 districts
surveyed had sarus cranes in varying numbers.
Seven of them, namely Chittorgarh, Bundi, Kota,
Banswara, Bhilwara, Bharatpur and Bara,
contributed to 29.81% of the total count of the
entire survey. Together, they contributed to
88.84% and 81.42% of sarus cranes counted in
the state during summer and winter respectively.
Jodhpur, where we failed to record the species,
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(3). DEC. 2000
323
CONSER VA TI ON ST A TUS OF THE INDIA NSARUS CRA NE
Table 1
SARUS CRANES ABUNDANCE AS COUNTED DURING THE SURVEY AND CALCULATED ENCOUNTER RATES
(IN PARENTHESES) IN DIFFERENT DISTRICTS WITH INFORMATION ON SURVEY METHOD(S) AND
MAJOR CROP(S) SEEN GROWING, 1 998-99.
SI.
States and Districts covered
Crops grown
Survey method
Abundance
(Encounter rate)
S
w
S
W
S
W
I
1.
Jammu & Kashmir
Jammu
*
p
*
1
*
0
2.
Khatuga*
*
p
*
1
*
2
II
1.
Himachal Pradesh
Kangra *
*
Wh
*
2
*
7(0.03)
2.
Kulu
*
Wh
*
2
*
Ot
Ill
1.
Punjab
Amritsar
P
*
1
*
0
*
2.
Hoshiaipur
P
Wh
1
2
0
Ot
3.
Patiala
P
*
1
*
0
*
4.
Ropar
P
*
2
*
0
*
IV
1.
Haryana
Faridabad
Su
*
2
*
0
*
2.
Gurgaon*
Su
*
1
*
2
*
3.
Hisar
(Dry)
Wh
2
2
Ot
0
4.
Kurukshetra
Wh
Wh
2
2
0
0
5.
Panipat*
*
Wh
*
2
*
ot
6.
Rohtak
P,Su
*
1
*
3
*
7.
Yamunanagar
0
*
1,2
*
0
*
V
1.
Rajasthan
Ajmer*
P
Wh
1
1
0
10
2.
Alwar*
P
Wh
1
1
2
6
3.
Banaswara*
P
Wh
1,2
2
33(0.1)
33(0.13)
4.
Bara*
P
Wh
1,2
1,2
19(0.19)
28(0.15)
5.
Banner
*
Wh
*
2
*
0
6.
Bharatpur*
P
Wh
1,2
1,2
21(0.08)
39(0.35)
7.
Bhilwara*
P
Wh
2
2
16(0.06)
49(0.2)
8.
Bundi *
P
Wh
1,2
1,2
44(0.18)
45(0.18)
9.
Chittorgarh*
P
Wh
1,2
1,2
54(0.2)
79(0.32)
10.
Dausa*
*
Wh
*
1
*
6
11.
Dhoulpur*
P
1
1
6
9
12.
Dungarpur
P
*
2
*
Ot
*
13.
Jaipur*
P
Wh
1
1
0
4
14.
Jalor
*
Wh
*
2
*
2(0.02)
15.
Jhalawar*
P
Wh
1,2
1,2
6(0.04)
18(0.09)
16.
Jodhpur
*
M
*
1,2
*
Ot
17.
Kota*
P
Wh
1,2
1,2
37(0.14)
29(0.15)
18.
Pali
P
Wh
2
1
2(0.02)
4
19.
Sawai Madhopur
P
Wh
1
1
2(0.04)
2
20.
Tonk*
P
Wh
1,2
1,2
8(0.08)
7(0.04)
21.
Udaipur
P
*
1
*
2
*
VI
1.
Gujarat
Ahmedabad *
P
Wh
1,2
1,2
52(0.26)
21(0.1)
2.
Amreli*
*
Wh
*
1
*
3
324 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
CONSER VA TIONSTA TUS OF THE INDIAN SARUS CRANE
Table 1 ( contcL .)
SARUS CRANES ABUNDANCE AS COUNTED DURING THE SURVEY AND CALCULATED ENCOUNTER RATES
(IN PARENTHESES) IN DIFFERENT DISTRICTS WITH INFORMATION ON SURVEY METHOD(S) AND
MAJOR CROP(S) SEEN GROWING, 1 998-99.
SI.
States and Districts covered
Crops grown
Survey method
Abundance
(Encounter rate)
S
W
S
W
S
W
3.
Banaskantha*
*
Wh
1,2
*
4(0.03)
4.
Bharuch
P
Wh
3
1,2
Of
2(0.04)
5.
Bhavnagar*
P
Wh
1,2
1,2
2(0.01)
8(0.08)
6.
Jamnagar
*
*
1,2
*
4(0.02)
7.
Junagadh
*
*
1
*
8
8.
Kheda*
P
Wh
1,2
1,2,3
40(0.2)
58(0.34)
9.
10.
Kutch *
Mehsana*
P
Wh
1
1
1,2
1
4
2
10(0.05)
33
11.
Panchmahal
*
Wh
*
1
6
12.
Rajkot
P
*
1,2
*
0
*
13.
Saberkanta
*
Wh
*
1,2
*
4(0.04)
14.
Surat
P
Wh
3
2
0
Ot
15.
Surendranagar*
P
Wh
1,2,3
1,2
34(0.34)
26(0.1)
16.
Vadodara*
P
Wh
1
1
4
4
VII
1.
Uttar Pradesh
Agra
(Dry)
*
1,2
*
0
*
2.
Aligarh *
P
Wh
1,2
1,2
32(0.21)
42(0.52)
3.
Allahabad
P, Su
Wh, 0
2
1,2
Ot
2(0.01)
4.
Azamgarh
Su
*
2
*
0
*
5.
Bahraich
*
Wh
*
1,2
*
4(0.04)
6.
Banda*
P
M
2
2
14(0.09)
8(0.06)
7.
Ballia
Su
0
2
1
0
Ot
8.
Bareilly*
Su, P
Su, Wh
2
2
15(0.29)
5(0.02)
9.
Bijnor
Su
*
2
*
0
*
10.
Deoria
Su
*
2
*
0
*
11.
Etah*
P
Wh
1,2
1,2
21(0.16)
58(0.58)
12.
Eta wah *
P
Wh
1,2
1,2
61(0.32)
61(0.68)
13.
Faizabad
Su
Wh
1
2
7(0.06)
1(0.01)
14.
Fanukhabad
*
Wh
*
2
*
7(0.08)
15.
Fatehpur*
*
M
*
2
*
5(0.07)
16.
Gonda
P,Su
*
3
*
7(0.05)
*
17.
Gorakhpur*
Su
Su, M
2
2
0
2(0.01)
18.
Hamirpur
P
*
3
*
2(0.01)
*
19.
Jhansi
(Dry)
*
2,3
*
0
*
20.
Kanpur
*
M
♦
2
*
2(0.01)
21.
Lakhimpur-Kheri
Su, P
M, Su
1,2
2
0
2(0.08)
22.
Lalitpur
(Dry)
♦
2
*
0
*
23.
Maharajganj
P,Su
*
2
*
4(0.07)
*
24.
Mainpuri*
P
Wh
1,2
1,2
79(1.5)
158(1.3)
25.
Mathura*
*
Wh
*
3
*
22(0.21)
26.
Mau
Su
*
2
*
2(0.01)
*
27.
Meerut
Su
*
1,2
*
ot
*
28.
Mirzapur
*
(Dry)
*
2
*
0
29.
Moradabad
Su
*
2
2
0
*
30.
Pilibhit*
Su
Wh
2
2
6(0.16)
19(0.32)
31.
Rae Bareli*
P
M
2
1,2
8(0.06)
Ot
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000 325
CONSER VA TIONSTA TUS OF THE INDIAN SARUS CRANE
Table 1 ( contd)
SARUS CRANES ABUNDANCE AS COUNTED DURING THE SURVEY AND CALCULATED ENCOUNTER RATES
(IN PARENTHESES) IN DIFFERENT DISTRICTS WITH INFORMATION ON SURVEY METHOD(S) AND
MAJOR CROP(S) SEEN GROWING, 1 998-99.
SI.
States and Districts covered
Crops grown
Survey method
Abundance
(Encounter rate)
S
w
S
W
S
w
32.
Shahjahanpur
P
M, Su
2
2
10(0.08)
15(0.08)
33.
Siddharthnagar
P
*
2
*
2(0.02)
*
34.
Sirsa
*
M
*
2
*
0
35.
Sitapur*
P
*
2
*
18(0.15)
*
VIII
Madhya Pradesh
1.
Bhopal *
So
Wh
1,2
1,2
6(0.06)
0
2.
Damoh
So
Wh
2
2
Of
2(0.02)
3.
Dewas*
So
*
2
*
Of
*
4.
Dhar
So
*
1,2
*
Of
*
5.
Guna
So
*
2
*
2(0.03)
*
6.
Gwalior
So
Wh
2
2
0
2(0.03)
7.
Hoshangabad
So
*
1,2
*
0
*
8.
Indore*
So
Wh
1,2
1
64
2(0.03)
9.
Jabalpur
So
*
1,2
*
0
*
10.
Morena
*
0
*
1
*
Ot
11.
Raipur*
*
Wh
*
1,2
*
2(0.02)
12.
Raisen
P
Wh
3
2
2(0.06)
0
13.
Ratlam*
0
*
1,2
*
Of
*
14.
Rewa
So
M, Su
1,2
2
0
0
15.
Sagar
So
Wh
1,2
2
0
2(0.01)
16.
Sehore
So
*
1
*
6(0.07)
*
17.
Shajapur
So
*
2
*
2(0.01)
*
18.
Shivpuri
So
*
2
*
1(0.01)
*
19.
Uijain
Su, So
*
1
*
0
*
IX
Maharashtra
1.
Bhandara*
P
*
1,2
*
4
*
2.
Chandrapur*
P
*
1
*
2
*
X
Bihar
1.
Patna
0
*
2
*
0
*
2.
Motihari
P
*
1
*
0
*
3.
Begusarai
P
*
1
*
0
*
XI
West Bengal
1.
Cooch Bihar
*
0
*
1,2
*
Ot
2.
Jalpaiguri
*
Wh
*
1,2
*
ot
S-Summer; W-Winter; Crops: P-Paddy, Wh-Wheat, Su-Sugarcane, So-Soyabean, M-Mustard, Wheat, O-Others
Survey method: 1 - Wetland counts, 2-Road transect, 3-Train transect
* Districts where sarus cranes were seen breeding with eggs or with young, or places where secondary information indicated
that they breed.
* Season when that district was not surveyed.
t Districts where sarus cranes were not encountered during the survey, but information from locals and other secondary information
indicated that they are seen in certain areas in the district.
(Note: Encounter rates are calculated only for those districts where the transects were undertaken)
326
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CONSER VA TIONSTA TUS OF THE INDIAN SARUS CRANE
is reputed to have a small non-breeding
population during the monsoon. Most districts
that were visited, during both seasons (with the
exception of Kota and Tonk), had more sarus
cranes recorded in winter. Encounter rate was
the highest in Chittorgarh district during winter,
which was probably due to a bias in the transect
route selected. High encounter rates were
recorded in Bundi and Kota districts, in
comparison with other districts.
Gujarat: A total of 329 sarus cranes were
counted. Just three districts, Kheda, Ahmedabad
and Surendranagar, had 70. 10% of the total count
in the state. Of these, the latter two districts
recorded a higher abundance in summer. Kutch
had a very high encounter rate in winter.
Surprisingly, Gole (1989) has not recorded this
species from Kutch. Earlier records from the state
suggest that populations of the species may have
increased only recently, as they used to be
“uncommon” previously (Ali 1954: 410). Kheda
and Surendranagar districts recorded high
encounter rates as well.
Uttar Pradesh: This state had the largest
population of sarus cranes among the states
surveyed. 73.04% of the total count in Uttar
Pradesh were sighted in just four of the 35
districts surveyed namely Mainpuri, Etawah,
Etah and Aligarh. Some of the districts were dry
when surveyed and had correspondingly low
numbers of sarus cranes. Mainpuri and Etawah
recorded very high encounter rates, and are the
most sarus-populated districts in the country.
Etawah recorded an encounter rate of more than
one bird per kilometre. In addition to a large
number of birds spread out in the fields and small
wetlands, certain wetlands in the district are
congregation grounds and during the survey, the
first author recorded a single congregation of 1 65
sarus cranes feeding in a dry field with grain
stored in it. Etah and Aligarh districts also have
very high numbers of these birds, which can be
seen even along highways, feeding in roadside
ditches.
Madhya Pradesh: The numbers of sarus
cranes are generally low, which could be due to
the fact that soyabean is the major crop in the
state. Most of the sarus cranes counted were in
one large flock in the Y ashwanth Sagar Reservoir
in Indore district. Encounter rates were uniformly
low throughout the state. Wetlands in Ujjain
district have a few pairs of resident sarus cranes.
But the pressure on these wetlands for watering
agriculture fields, bathing cattle, and several
other domestic activities, is very high. Morena
district (National Chambal Sanctuary) in the
northern part of the state is reputed to have
populations of up to 50 sarus cranes in winter
(A.S. Pawar and R. Saxena, pers. comm.)
Other States: Maharashtra has a very
small pocket of breeding sarus cranes. None were
seen in Bihar and West Bengal. In Bihar, an
anecdotal report of a pair near the Valmiki Tiger
Reserve was the only evidence of the species in
the state. In West Bengal, small populations were
found visiting remote wetlands in Koochbihar
district in winter.
Seasonal difference in abundance and
encounter rates: The apparent difference in
encounter rates and abundance between summer
and winter may be due to the difference in
availability of water and food (in the form of
crops). In summer, most wetlands dry up, leading
to sarus crane congregations in the few available
perennial wetlands (as recorded in Indore), while
in winter, sarus cranes are more widely spread
out in the abundant natural wetlands and wheat
fields in which they forage. Thus, surveys may
yield higher counts if perennial waterbodies are
identified and visited in summer for spot-counts,
and transects are best undertaken in winter to
calculate encounter rates and densities. Counts
in waterbodies are best carried out early in the
morning, before the birds disperse to forage, and
in the late evenings when most of them have
come to roost. This has been tried out successfully
in Aligarh district (A. Rahmani pers. comm.).
Contrary to the hypothesis that sarus crane
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
327
CONSERVATION STATUS OF THE INDIAN SARUS CRANE
distribution range differs between the two
seasons, this survey recorded a similar
distribution range for the species in both the
seasons. Except for the population straying to
the eastern fringe of the range in winter, they
were recorded everywhere else in both seasons.
A comparison of population estimates from
this survey with the data in Gole’s (1989) report
is unfortunately not possible, due to the different
methods used. In addition, encounter rates for
this survey have been calculated only for districts
actually visited, and are thus not comparable with
previous estimates of densities and populations
for districts not actually surveyed. From the
present survey, estimation of density was not
possible. We suggest that results of future studies
be presented as raw data, i.e. actual number of
birds seen and total number of kilometres covered
in transects (or encounter rates) to be helpful for
comparison. Such representation of data would
prove very helpful to analyze population changes
over the years.
Distribution: Fig. 2 shows the distribution
range of the sarus crane as projected after the
present survey. Two ranges have been drawn on
the map:
1 . The outermost points known to have sarus
crane populations have been connected (straight
line) and represent the range of the species as a
‘minimum convex polygon’.
2. The dotted line represents the range of the
sarus crane as known from information collected
from various sources. The international border
of India forms the continuation of the dotted line
wherever it is incomplete.
The limits of distribution can be defined
as follows:
1. Kathua district in Jammu & Kashmir
(32° 29' N) forms the northernmost region where
sarus cranes are recorded in the country. This is
weakly continuous with the populations in
Himachal Pradesh, such as in Kangra district.
2 . Sams cranes are well distributed in the
terai of Uttar Pradesh and their northernmost
record in the state was at Meerut (29° 15' N).
Another population to the north covered the
districts of Hisar, Gurgaon, Rohtak and Panipat
in Haryana.
3. Sams populations were seen in Kutch
district of Gujarat (69° 34' N). This forms the
westernmost distribution of sams cranes in the
country. The western border extends across
Rajasthan, covering Jalor, Pali and Jodhpur
districts.
4. Maharashtra is the southernmost state,
and Chandrapur district (20° 12' N) the
southernmost point of sams crane distribution.
This extends to the northeast into Raipur district
of Madhya Pradesh.
5. The easternmost record in the country
is by Choudhury (1998) in Assam (95° 35' E).
His sightings are seemingly discontinuous with
the rest of the distribution range, as no sams
cranes were sighted during this survey in Bihar.
The easternmost record in Uttar Pradesh was in
Mau (83° 20' E). (Note: Information received
from several places in Bihar after the survey
suggests that several districts have populations
of sarus cranes. Thus, the population is
continuous after all, as has been represented in
Fig. 2. A complete compilation of reports
received subsequent to the survey is being
prepared separately.)
Breeding areas : The districts and survey
points where sams cranes were recorded breeding
are marked in Table 1 and Fig. 2 respectively.
The breeding range does not extend eastwards
as much as the distribution range, and its
easternmost limit was recorded at Allahabad. The
birds were seen breeding throughout the rest of
the distribution range in the country.
Demography: Breeding population : The
percentage of breeding pairs differed between
states and seasons. Most breeding pairs were seen
in Rajasthan, Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh in that
order (Table 2). For the whole population,
19.76% pairs were recorded breeding. Most of
the breeding records were made during the winter
328
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CONSER VA TION STA TUS OF THE INDIAN SARUS CRANE
/\y Distribution range of sarus crane in India
(Minimum convex polygon)
/\/ Projected distribution range of sarus crane in India
Fig. 2: Present distribution range of sarus crane as estimated from the Survey with locations of
survey points for the two seasons and observed breeding areas in India
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
329
CONSER VA TIONSTA TUS OF THE INDIAN SARUS CRANE
Table 2
DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SARUS CRANE POPULATION IN DIFFERENT STATES SURVEYED
State % Breeding Pairs Juveniles per 100 adults
Summer
Winter
Total
Summer
Winter
Total
Rajasthan
18.58
29.03
25
10(252)
15 (366)
13 (618)
Gujarat
12.5
22.35
18.12
7(138)
11 (191)
9 (329)
Uttar Pradesh
11.27
27.40
16.88
5 (288)
12 (413)
10(701)
Madhya Pradesh
10.53
0
9.76
5(83)
0(10)
4(93)
Total
14.49
24.17
19.76
7 (772)
13 (989)
10(1761)
(Figures in parentheses indicate the total number of cranes considered. Only states where 1 0 or more sarus were encountered are
included in the analysis; other counts are included in calculating total values. Values have been rounded off for the juvenile-adult)
survey (December to March) as recorded
previously (Gole 1989, Parasharya et al. 1989,
Vyas 1999a, Vyas 1999b). Most breeding pairs
had one offspring, but a few pairs in select
districts had two chicks each. Of the breeding
pairs recorded in Gujarat, Rajasthan and Uttar
Pradesh, 14.81%, 16.67% and 23.08%
respectively had two offsprings each, most of
them in winter. This compares well with data on
populations of other crane species which fledge
two young, such as the whooping crane ( Grus
americana) - 14.5%, Eurasian or common crane
(G. grus) - 24%, and whitenaped crane (G. vipio)
- 27% (Johnsgard 1983).
JK - Jammu & Kashmir; HP - Himachal Pradesh; HR - Haryana; RJ - Rajasthan; GJ - Gujarat;
UP - Uttar Pradesh; MP - Madhya Pradesh; MH - Maharashtra.
(The same abbreviations hold good for the rest of the figures unless mentioned otherwise).
Fig. 3; State and season-wise sarus crane demography, 1998-99
330
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CONSER VA TIONSTA TUS OF THE INDIAN SARUS CRANE
Juvenile to adult ratio : The sarus crane
population had 7 juveniles for every 100 adults
in the summer and 10 in the winter (Fig. 3, Table
2). The ratio differed between states and seasons.
Rajasthan had the highest recorded ratio of
juveniles in winter with 15 juveniles counted for
every 100 adults, followed by Uttar Pradesh,
which had 12 in winter. The difference in
recruitment between localities was because in
some localities, pairs are able to rear two young,
while in others, only one survives.
Data on recruitment in sandhill cranes
( Grus canadensis ) collected by Miller and
Hatfield (1974) show much lower values than
those calculated for the sarus crane; 3.5 in 1972
and 4.3 in 1973, for every 100 adult cranes in
Saskatchewan, Canada. Ramacharidran and
Vijayan (1994) recorded a survival rate of 86%
in fledglings in Keoladeo Ghana National Park.
If this value is consistent among populations in
different areas, the majority of the juveniles
counted during the survey will survive to
adulthood.
Breeding cycle : Most of the breeding was
recorded in winter. However, the sarus crane
seems to be breeding throughout the year (see
Fig. 4 for month- wise breeding data). There were
two major ‘peaks’ observed in the breeding
pattern. The minor peak takes place in February-
March, with the chicks hatching in March, or
rarely, in early June. The second, i.e. the major
breeding period starts almost immediately in
July-August and continues till September-
October, as is indicated by the large number of
juveniles seen during this period, and the absence
of single adults, implying completion of courtship
and pair-bonding (Fig. 4). This observation is in
accord with previous studies on local populations,
where a minor breeding season (also referred to
as sub-season) was observed in February-March
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331
CONSER VA TIONSTA TUS OF THE INDIAN SARUS CRANE
in Bharatpur (Ramachandran and Vijayan 1994)
and in February-April in Kota (Vyas and
Kulshreshta 1989). In these studies, the peak
breeding season was observed in August-October
and July-October, respectively. Such a bimodal
pattern in the breeding leads to the following
conjectures: (1) two groups are breeding in the
same locality at different times, (2) pairs are
breeding twice a year or (3) pairs with breeding
failure in one season breed again in the next
season in the same year. Long term studies on
identified pairs would give insights into this
aspect of sarus crane ecology.
Group size : Sarus cranes are
characteristically seen in pairs at any time of the
year (Fig. 5). Congregations and groups are rare,
and a few families can be observed, though
mostly in winter. This behaviour is markedly
different from the common crane, demoiselle
crane ( Anthropoides virgo) and the blue crane
(A. paradiseus), which are mostly seen in groups,
often numbering tens of thousands, both in their
wintering and breeding grounds (Johnsgard
1983, Allan 1995).
Habitat use: Data has been pooled for all
age classes and group sizes since there was no
marked difference in habitat utilization when
assessed separately. In some cases, the data was
insufficient to attempt separate analysis. Data on
nest sites was not collected, as this was beyond
the scope of the project, and warrants different
methods. Sarus cranes were seen to use
agriculture fields more than other habitat types
(Fig. 6). There was a marked increase in the use
of natural wetlands in winter, probably because
of higher availability of the wetlands after
monsoon. A few sarus cranes were seen in
artificial wetlands such as bunded tanks, ponds
and canals. Sams cranes forage in shallow water
with vegetation along the sides (Gole 1989) and
are omnivores, feeding on fish (Law 1930),
insects and tubers (Ghorpade 1975) and
Fig. 5: Group size in sarus cranes
332
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CONSER VA TION STA TUS OF THE INDIAN SA R US CRA NE
Others (Wastelands,
Natural Wetlands Ponds/ Canals Agriculture fields f|yjng overhead)
Fig. 6: Habitat use by sarus cranes in India
occasionally on eggs of other birds (Sundar,
2000). Artificial wetlands often have bare, steep
sides and deep water at the edges. Natural
wetlands, on the contrary, have vegetation on the
banks, shallow at the sides and suitable for
foraging by water birds, and therefore are
preferable for sarus cranes.
Habitats were used differently in different
states, presumably due to differential availability.
In states with low sarus crane counts, information
on differential habitat use is not available. In
Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh, they
were seen in agriculture fields, while in Haryana
and Maharashtra, they were seen in natural
wetlands. In Uttar Pradesh, most of the sarus
cranes were seen in agriculture fields in both
seasons (Fig. 7). This could be due to a reduction
in the number of natural wetlands and their
conversion to agriculture fields (Gole 1989). The
sams cranes are perhaps faithful to the area where
they lived. On the contrary, in both Rajasthan
and Gujarat, they were found to prefer natural
wetlands, and there was a marked increase in
the use of natural wetlands in winter.
Among the crop fields, paddy and wheat
were used most often in summer and winter
respectively (Fig. 8). Sarus cranes eat large
amounts of paddy and wheat prior to the harvest
of these crops and can become pests (Parasharya
et al. 1986). They find little to eat in other crop
fields such as sugarcane and soyabean. When
seen in areas with sugarcane and soyabean, most
of the pairs were seen foraging in small puddles
at the side of the fields and only one pair was
observed preening themselves in the middle of a
soyabean field.
All birds were seen in non-forested areas,
except for one resident pair seen in a small
wetland amid deciduous forested hills, in Dhar
district, Madhya Pradesh. In Bandhavgarh Tiger
Reserve, Madhya Pradesh, two pairs were
reported to breed regularly in the grasslands
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333
CONSER VA TIONSTA TUS OF THE INDIAN SARUS CRANE
Paddy ESI Wheat/ Wheat-Mustard @ Gram/Cotton fl Soyabean dOthers($)
RJ-S RJ-W GJ-S GJ-W UP-S UP-W MP-S MP-W
$ - Includes inundated, groundnut and vegetable fields
Fig. 8: Crop-Jand used by sarus cranes in different states (In other states they used only natural wetlands)
334
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC 2000
CONSER VA TIONSTA TUS OF THE INDIAN SARUS CRANE
amidst the forest. Interestingly, this area in
Bandhavgarh was earlier under cultivation (A.K.
Mishra, pers. comm.) and perhaps the pairs
maintain site-fidelity. A similar observation was
made in Kanha Tiger Reserve, Mandla district,
Madhya Pradesh (Eric D’Cunha in lift.). A pair
of sarus cranes were seen in the tanks of the
Reserve’s buffer zone until 1996, but are absent
since. This area was previously agricultural as
well. One of a pair was shot dead by villagers
recently. This disturbance, and the removal of
agricultural lands around the tanks would have
served to displace the sarus from the area. No
information on land use was available for the
Dhar area. Non-breeding pairs were occasionally
seen in wetlands in Dudhwa National Park, Uttar
Pradesh (G. Maheshwaran, in lift.).
Three congregations were observed during
the survey. Of these, two were recorded in paddy
fields (one dry and one inundated), both in
Etawah district, Uttar Pradesh. The other was in
a reservoir in Indore district, Madhya Pradesh.
Another congregation was reported from a
natural wetland (riverside) from Banda district,
Uttar Pradesh (S.A. Hussain, pers. comm.). Such
congregations are supposed to be sites for
unpaired birds to find partners (V. Prakash and
A. Rahmani, pers. comm.). Otherwise, the cranes
merely congregate to use the few wetlands during
the dry months.
Pairs with young typically used open
wetlands, natural or artificial (e.g. agriculture
fields). The agriculture fields used were always
interspersed with natural wetlands, small and/
or large. In areas under sugarcane, pairs with
young used the wetlands on the periphery of the
fields.
Most crane species around the world select
wetlands for breeding, and all species with the
exception of the Siberian crane ( Grus
leucogeranus), use drylands as well for foraging
(Johnsgard 1983). The blue crane and the
demoiselle crane use dryland habitats throughout
the year (Johnsgard 1983, Allan 1995). From
past studies and the present survey, it is apparent
that sarus cranes time their breeding to coincide
with a period when food and water is in plenty.
This strategy, combined with partial tolerance
to changes in the landscape (such as continued
use of habitats converted from natural wetlands
to paddy fields, but seeming intolerance to
sugarcane and soyabean fields), is good for the
survival of the species. Other studies have
documented the importance of paddy fields for
water birds, and the effect of changes in
agriculture practices — old practices with
minimum disturbance continue to attract water
birds (Lane and Fujioka 1998).
Sarus cranes in protected areas: Sarus
cranes are vagile (free-flying) creatures, and are
rarely contained completely within a protected
area. Most of the population spends a great
proportion of their time in unprotected, even
private land. During the survey, we visited 13
protected areas, most of them bird sanctuaries,
and discovered that the population present was
negligible, except in certain cases where they
seem to owe their survival in that district to the
protected areas (Table 4). In Haryana, as
mentioned before, the species was seen to be
surviving almost completely in protected areas.
In Gujarat, one district, namely Mehsana, had
the majority of its sarus cranes in protected areas.
In other districts, however, most of the
individuals counted were in private land. In Uttar
Pradesh, except for Rae Bareli, all districts had
more sarus cranes in unprotected areas.
Attitude of the local people towards
sarus cranes: Most of the sarus population is in
private or otherwise unprotected areas, and there
is a lot of interaction between the birds and the
local people. The data collected by interviewing
people in each state revealed that opinions
differed from state to state (Fig. 9). In Uttar
Pradesh and Maharashtra, there is a predominant
feeling that the bird is a pest of crops: feeding
on grain, and harming newly sown seedlings by
clearing the ground for nesting. Most people in
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335
CONSER VA TION STA TUS OF THE INDIAN SARUS CRANE
Table 3
DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SARUS CRANE POPULATIONS FROM VARIOUS STUDIES
Source of information and area considered
% Breeding pairs
Juveniles per 100 adults
Parasharya et al. (1989) - in Gujarat
42.87
21
Vyas (1999a) - in Rajasthan and a few districts in MP
27
19
Gole (1989)- all India
27.72
14
Present study - all India
19.76
10
(Values have been rounded off for the juvenile-adult ratio)
Madhya Pradesh were neutral to the species and
understandably so, since it appears in such low
numbers in the state. Also, in one season, the
state is carpeted with soyabean, and it is only
during the winter wheat harvest that sarus cranes
can become pests. Uttar Pradesh, where the
maximum number of people were interviewed,
was the only state where all individuals knew of
the sarus crane.
People who consider the bird as a pest are
usually farmers affected by the birds feeding on
the harvest in large quantities, and in whose
fields the birds clear freshly sown seedlings to
make nests. In the former case, they scare the
birds away with loud noises or, in some cases,
by throwing stones. Where nesting has begun,
the farmers remove the eggs from the nests and
may eat them, or place them in other sarus nests
away from the fields (Parasharya 1998). We did
not record any instance of the fanners shooting
the birds to keep them away.
From literature (Gole 1989, 1996, Meine
and Archibald 1996), it would seem that sarus
cranes in India are protected by the locals due to
the religious significance attributed to the birds.
However, from our survey, 495 of the 1,339
Table 4
SARUS CRANE NUMBERS IN PROTECTED AREAS AND TOTAL
NUMBER SEEN IN THE DISTRICT (IF THEY WERE SIGHTED ELSEWHERE)
State
Protected area visited
Sarus cranes counted*
Sarus cranes counted in the district*
1.
1.
Haryana
Rohtak
Bhindawas Wildlife Sanctuary
3
3
2.
Gurgaon
Sultanpur Bird Sanctuary
2
2
II.
1.
Rajasthan
Bharatpur
Keoladeo-Ghana National Park
26
56
III.
1.
Gujarat
Mehsana
Thol Lake Bird Sanctuary
35
35
2.
Ahmedabad
Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary
17
73
3.
Surendranagar
Tundi Talab (in Wild Ass Sanctuary)
10
54
4.
Bhavnagar
Velavadar National Park
5
8
IV.
1.
Uttar Pradesh
Meerut
Hastinapur Wildlife Sanctuary
2+
0
2.
Lakhimpur-Kheri
Dudhwa Wildlife Sanctuary
0
2
3.
Agra
Keetham Jheel
0
0
4.
Etah
Patna Bird Sanctuary
20
79
5.
Mainpuri
Saman Bird Sanctuary
16
237
6.
Rae Bareli
Samaspur Bird Sanctuary
15-20t
8
* - Total number of sarus cranes seen in both seasons. Territorial pairs may have been recounted during the second survey.
+ - Information provided by local forest staff.
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CONSER VA TIONSTA TUS OF THE INDIAN SARUS CRANE
people questioned (37%) regarded the bird as a
pest, whereas 501 individuals (37.4%) held the
bird in religious esteem. There is not much
difference between these percentages, and the
sentiments of people could be changing — for
the worse.
Mortality in sarus cranes: Breeding pairs
were seen to be at risk of colliding with high-
tension power lines. Pairs breeding in natural
wetlands and agriculture fields fly in and out of
the nesting sites and occasionally collide with
the overhead wires. Observations in Mainpuri
and Etawah suggest that, of the resident
population, the cranes affected in this manner
could be between 2.5% and 20% respectively
(Sundar and Choudhury in press).
No case of mortality was observed in
juvenile birds. Their habit of crossing the road
could result in the death of individuals, as
reported by Parasharya et al. (1989). However,
no data is available on this form of mortality,
which seems to be rare. Egg stealing was
observed in practically the entire range of
distribution. Eggs are taken for food, and
medicine (to treat eye ailments and diseases in
cattle; also reported by Tatu 1999). Egg stealing
could be the most important reason for the
observed low recruitment in the species. In
certain areas such as Chandrapur in
Maharashtra, and Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserve
in Madhya Pradesh, removal of eggs from the
few breeding pairs can result in total breeding
failure for the entire population. This can be a
cause for concern in areas like Kota (Rajasthan),
where the population is highly localised, and
there is a high incidence of egg removal (A. Nair,
pers. comm.).
From the available data on demographic
factors of sarus cranes (Table 3), the percentage
of breeding pairs and recruitment observed
Fig. 9: Opinion of people on sarus cranes in different states*
(* - Only states where at least 10 people were interviewed are included)
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
337
CONSER VA TIONSTA TUS OF THE INDIAN SARUS CRANE
during this survey is the lowest. There could be
several reasons for this:
1 . Breeding incidence has reduced due to
decrease of preferred breeding habitat (see Gole
1989, Archibald and Meine 1996).
2. Egg mortality has increased due to
stealing by locals.
3. In previous studies, demographic
factors were calculated from data for winter
surveys, when incidence of breeding is higher.
Implications for conservation: Sarus
cranes have a low breeding population and
seemingly low recruitment. This makes them
vulnerable, and local populations can easily be
decimated by removal of select wetlands that the
birds use for breeding. Regular surveys have to
be carried out to keep a check on breeding
grounds and to incorporate protection measures
in their management. The importance of
maintaining natural wetlands, which are
undoubtedly superior habitats for sarus crane
breeding and foraging, cannot be
overemphasized. However, in the context of
India, which is primarily an agricultural country,
it may be difficult to develop and maintain large
tracts of purely natural wetlands. In this light,
the utility of a mosaic of small natural wetlands,
interspersed within agriculture fields, can be
suitable surrogates to natural wetlands.
Mechanisation in agriculture practices will be
deleterious for populations in agriculture fields.
Prevention of egg stealing, minimum
disturbance to nesting pairs and families with
young, is important to ensure maximum
breeding success. The increasing apathy of locals
towards the crane may prove deleterious for its
survival. Conservation plans should include
protocols by which the locals can be educated
on the importance of sarus cranes, and should
emphasize the importance of local participation
in the effort. Of particular and urgent need is
baseline data on several aspects of the ecology
of sarus cranes. Important among these is
detailed information on breeding requirements,
habitat use and selection, patterns of local
migration, and behavioural ecology of the species.
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the kind
cooperation of the Chief Wildlife Wardens of
all the states surveyed. Mr.S.K. Mukherjee,
Director, Wildlife Institute of India, provided
timely support. For assistance during field
work, we thank Purushottam, Surinder (Jammu);
Mr. Sanjeeva Panday (DCF), K. Ramesh
(Himachal Pradesh); Dr. Geetha Padat, Mr. A.K.
Parmar (DFO Gandhinagar), Mr. Dhamecha
(Gujarat); Mr. Rakesh Vyas, Mrs. Shruti
Sharma, Director, Keoladeo-Ghana National
Park, Mr. Agarwal (ACF, Banswara) (Rajas-
than); Mr. Sharma, Wildlife Inspector, Hisar
(Haryana); Dr. Salim Javed, Aligarh Muslim
University, Rajeev Chauhan, Etawah (Uttar
Pradesh); Amar Singh Pawar and Drs. R.J. Rao
and Rishikesh Sharma, Gwalior; Mr. Suhas
Kumar (CF) Bhopal; Mr. A.K. Mishra (DEO)
Bandhavgarh (Madhya Pradesh); Mr. A.K. Raha
(Conservator), Tanushree Biswas (West Bengal);
Vinay Kumar, Jamshedpur; Mr. & Mrs. Rana
Mahesh, Muzaffarpur (Bihar); Mr. Sirish and
Mr Uday Singh (Maharashtra). Dr. George
Archibald, Claire Mirande and Dr. Julie
Langenberg of the International Crane
Foundation provided useful information and
literature. The first author thanks Mr. Sridhar
Rokkam for the G.P.S. Previous drafts of the
article benefited from the comments of
Karthikeyan Vasudevan, Rajah Jaypal and
Bivash Pandav. Dr. Navneeth K. Gupta and
Dinesh Pundeer assisted in making the maps
and we are grateful to them.
338
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
CONSER VA TIONSTA TUS OF THE INDIAN SARUS CRANE
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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
339
LIVESTOCK DEPREDATION BY WOLVES IN THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD
SANCTUARY, NANNAJ (MAHARASHTRA), INDIA1
Satish Kumar3 and Asad R. Rahmani2
( With three text-figures )
Key words: Antilope cervicapra , blackbuck, Canis lupus pallipes , Indian wolf, depredation,
pack size, livestock
Food habits of the Indian wolf ( Canis lupus pallipes) were studied in the Great Indian Bustard
Sanctuary, Nannaj, India, between 1991-1994. Estimation of wolf depredation on livestock is
essential to implement compensation, management, and conservation plans for the wolf. Blackbuck
(Antilope cervicapra) was the primary prey of wolves in the Sanctuary; goats and sheep were the
major livestock taken by wolves. Data on livestock killed, age of the kill, distance of the kill from
the Sanctuary, and the terrain where the kill was made were collected. More goats than sheep
were killed, and livestock depredations were higher during the pup-rearing period of wolves,
when pups were dependent on parents and/or helpers for food. Multiple attacks were made by
wolves on livestock herds to divert the attention of guard dogs. Sixty-three percent of the kills
were 1-4 m from a bush or some other vegetative cover. The maximum number of kills (52%)
made during daytime were found up to 0.2 km from the Sanctuary plots. The owners retrieved
16% of the total livestock kills, by chasing the wolves or with the help of guard dogs. Mauled
animals rarely survived. All the kills occurred in the grazing lands outside the Sanctuary, but
kills were carried into the core areas of the Sanctuary. There was a monthly variation in the
abundance of goats and sheep in the study area.
Introduction
The Indian wolf (Canis lupus pallipes ), one
of the smallest wolves of the world, represents
the southernmost range limit of wolf distribution
in the world ( 1 2° 57’ N and 76° 50' E). The Indian
wolf lives in smaller packs, usually 4-7
individuals. It is uncommon, and found in
pockets of western, central and peninsular India
in open grassland, scrubland, and rocky hills.
The Indian wolf is protected by law and classified
as endangered under the Indian Wildlife
(Protection) Act, 1972. Unlike its temperate
cousin, it litters in winter (Kumar 1998).
Compared to other races of wolves, the
Indian wolf is unique in the environment in
which it lives. Its conspecifics in other regions
'Accepted March, 1999
2Bombay Natural History Society,
Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.
J Present address: Department of Wildlife Sciences,
Aligarh Muslim University,
Aligarh 202 002, Uttar Pradesh, India.
are attracted to garbage dumps (Mendelssohn
1983a, b) around human settlements and are
reported to scavenge goat and sheep carcasses
in Saudi Arabia (Iyed A. Nader 1992 pers.
comm.). This habit is not recorded in the Indian
wolf.
The wolf and its principle prey, blackbuck
(Antilope cewicapra), have responded positively
to conservation measures in the Great Indian
Bustard (GIB) Sanctuary (Kumar and Rahmani
1997). Wolves exist discontinuously all over the
GIB Sanctuary in small packs because of the high
human population residing in and around the
Sanctuary and consequent disturbance (Kumar
and Rahmani 1997). The Sanctuary covers
numerous villages, towns, crop fields, grazing
land and some pockets of forest land. The major
natural prey of the Indian wolf in the GIB
Sanctuary is the blackbuck. The blacknaped hare
(Lepus nigricollis) and rodents are also taken as
food. However, the wolf frequently preys on
livestock, which brings it into direct conflict with
humans. Livestock that fall prey to wolves are
340
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(3) DEC 2000
LIVESTOCK DEPREDATION BY WOLVES IN THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD SANCTUARY
goats, sheep, calves of cows and buffaloes, pigs,
and poultry fowl.
Wolf predation on livestock remains a
highly complex and hotly debated issue in India,
as depredations cannot be confirmed. Irrelevant
claims by shepherds, farmers, and ranchers,
differences of opinion over depredation, and
exaggeration of the facts only worsens the issue.
While conducting this study on the ecology of
the Indian wolf in the Great Indian Bustard
Sanctuary, Nannaj, we attempted to assess the
magnitude of the wolf-man conflict resulting
from livestock depredation, estimation of which
is essential to implement compensatory payment,
planned management, and long-term
conservation of the wolf. Our studies on livestock
depredation in this part of India were an attempt
to answer a few questions on the hunting strategy
of wolves, magnitude of wolf-human conflict, and
the seasonality of depredation.
Study Area
Nannaj is a small village 20 km north of
Solapur between 17° 41' N and 75° 56' E at
486 m above msl (Fig. 1). It lies in the drought
prone area of the Deccan Plateau. Due to the
rain shadow created by the Western Ghats, the
drought prone area of Solapur and its adjacent
areas in the Deccan Plateau receive an average
rainfall of 750 mm, distributed over 3 to 4
months. The rainfall is erratic and drought is a
common phenomenon. The climate of Solapur
is semi-arid, with 3 seasons: summer (February
to mid-June), monsoon (mid-June to mid-
October), and winter (mid-October to January).
^ Protected area
; : ;; Agriculture area
_ Metalled road
— Non-metalled road
Stone breaking unit
500m
• \\ Stone quarry
D Forest rest house
G — Grazing land
J To Solapur
Fig. T. The Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary, Nannaj, Maharashtra
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC 2000
341
LIVESTOCK DEPREDA TIONBY WOLVES IN I HE GREA T INDIAN BUSTARD SANCTUARY
The monsoon season starts in mid- June or early
July with dry spells during late July and early
August. There is adequate rainfall in late
August and September, which ceases by
mid-October. The average temperature varies
from 10 °C in December to 45 °C in May. The
substratum is comprised of half-decomposed
basalt rock formations. The terrain is gently
undulating with mild slopes and flat topped
hillocks with intermittent shallow valleys,
which form the major drainage channels.
Grasslands are distributed in disjunct, frag-
mented patches, forming a mosaic of grazing
and agricultural lands and human settle-
ments. Most of the grasslands are present on
cultivable slopes and tops of the hillocks. These
grasslands are government owned as well as
private, and constitute the ‘commons’ meant for
grazing.
In 1975, the Drought Prone Areas
Programme (DPAP) financed by the World Bank
was initiated in the Solapur district. The DPAP
is an area development programme, aimed at
integrating efforts in the agricultural and allied
sectors to mitigate the adverse effects of drought,
by developing land, water, vegetation, livestock
and the restoration of ecological balance. The
establishment of pastures and plantation plots
by the Forest Department under this scheme
witnessed resurgence of wildlife. In the
earlyl980s, some plantation plots were
established under the District Rural Develop-
ment Agency (DRDA). The area around Nannaj
can be broadly divided into ( 1 ) Protected DPAP/
DRDA plots (plantations and grasslands)
(2) Unprotected grazing land, and (3) Crop
fields.
The protected plots are under the control
of the State Forest Department. All DPAP plots
are surrounded by grazing or agricultural land.
The DPAP plots can be sub-divided into
plantation and grassland. Many new plots are
coming up in the area under Social Forestry
Plantation Schemes.
Methodology
We conducted ecological and behavioural
studies on the Indian wolf for three years in an
area of 30 sq. km in the GIB Sanctuary, Solapur,
between June 1991 and September 1994. One
pack (named Nannaj Pack) was observed for
detailed behavioural studies. Two other packs,
Gangewadi Pack and Mohol Pack were identified
around the Sanctuary. The Gangewadi Pack was
present 20 km northeast from the centre of the
Nannaj Pack territory, whereas Mohol Pack was
25 km west of the Nannaj Pack territory. Data
on livestock depredations were collected by
ground surveys and also from information given
by shepherds and farmers around the Sanctuary.
They were encouraged to report any incidence
of wolf depredation for further investigation. To
estimate losses due to depredations, interviews
were conducted during the studies on wolves.
Sometimes kills were located opportunistically
during ground- surveys for wolf tracks.
First-hand investigation of the livestock
depredation claims helped to minimise major
biases due to false claims. A complaint was
considered authentic if our investigation revealed
some evidence such as a wounded animal,
remains of the victim, blood stains on grass, wolf
tracks, chase sequences on the ground, and signs
of struggle. Physical examination of the kill site
was done immediately on receiving a report.
The Indian wolf is the only large predator
in the study area, hence depredation by other
large predators was ruled out. Farmers and
shepherd communities informed us about wolf
behaviour, particularly its depredation activities
at night. The first author (SK) occasionally stayed
with shepherds at night to observe wolf activity
around villages and confirm the information
supplied by them.
On receiving a complaint of depredation,
information was collected on the sex and age of
the kill, whether the kill was rescued, presence
of sheep dogs, and habitat type. The terrain.
342
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3) DEC. 2000
LIVESTOCK DEPREDATION BY WOLVES IN THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD SANCTUARY
vegetation height at the kill site, and nearest
vegetative cover from the kill was also recorded.
Total count of the livestock was done on a weekly
basis around the Sanctuary area to assess its local
population. Some elevated spots in the Sanctuary
with higher visibility were selected to make
counts. The counts were done between 1400 and
1600 hrs, when a maximum number was
expected around the Sanctuary. Livestock refers
to goats and sheep.
The three wolf denning periods are: (1)
December 1991 -November 1 992 (litter bom or
raised), (2) December 1 992-November 1993 (no
litter bom), (3) December 1993-November 1994
(litter bom).
For some analyses, the denning periods ( 1 )
and (3) were further sub-divided into two periods:
(a) denning period (pups are dependent on
parents and other members of the pack for food;
December to May); (b) post-denning period
(juveniles start hunting with the parents or
independently. This was observed between June
and October, after which they start separating
and dispersing. Sometimes the pack members
were seen in very loose associations).
This was done to test any difference in
depredations when (i) the pups were restricted
to dens or rendezvous sites, (ii) the juveniles
started hunting, and (iii) no breeding took
place.
Nonparametric statistical analysis was
performed on the data. Differences in predation
on goats and sheep were tested by chi-square test.
Difference in depredations during the denning
period (1) and (2), and between (3) and (2) were
tested by Mann-Whitney U test, whereas
Kmskal- Wallis one-way analysis of variance was
perfomied when the kills were grouped into three
categories. Data collection was completed in
August 1994, hence depredations for the year
1993-94 were only for eight months. The pack
size of wolves during the study period was not
constant; livestock kills were therefore averaged
for various comparisons.
Results
The Nannaj wolf pack bred during 1991
and 1993. Pack size varied from 2-7 individuals
(excluding pups). No active den was found in
1992; no breeding was observed, probably due
to severe drought. During the study period, 101
animals (77 goats and 24 sheep) were attacked
by wolves. Of the 16 mauled animals (13 goats
and 3 sheep), only 3 goats and one sheep
survived. The mauled animals did not die due to
infection of wound. All these animals had bites
on the neck, muzzle, and head. Of the total kills,
the owners retrieved 1 6% by chasing the wolves
or with the help of sheep dogs. Wolves killed
twenty goats and sheep at night and the
remaining during the day. The night kills (n =
20) were located at 3 km or more from the
protected core areas of the Sanctuary.
Of 12 kills during 1991-1992 (monsoon
1991 and winter 1991-1992), maximum
depredation occurred in winter (n - 11). This
was probably due to the absence of pups with
the pack during monsoon 1991 and the presence
of five pups during the winter of 1991-1992.
During 1992-1993 (summer and monsoon 1992
and winter 1993-1994), maximum kills were
found in monsoon (50%) and summer (43%),
and the remaining in winter (7%) of 1992-1993
(Table 1), which was probably due to the
presence of pups during monsoon and summer,
and small pack size during winter when the pack
was dissociated and dispersed. During rains,
shepherds shelter under trees, while their
livestock graze in a wide area, giving wolves
ample opportunity to attack the temporarily
unguarded herds (Kumar 1998).
No livestock kill was reported in the
summer and monsoon of 1 993 . This was because
the shepherds had migrated to other areas where
rainfall was higher during a drought year. Some
shepherds stayed back with a few herds of
livestock that were spread over a wide range. The
wolves likewise travelled over a larger area in
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC 2000
343
LIVESTOCK DEPREDA TION BY WOL VES IN THE GREA T INDIAN BUSTARD SANCTUA R Y
Table 1
DOMESTIC UNGULATES KILLED BY WOLVES
DURING DIFFERENT SEASONS FROM 1991-1994
IN THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD SANCTUARY
Seasons
Livestock Depredation
Total
Goats
Sheep
Monsoon 1991
(mid-June - mid-October)
Winter 1991-92
0
1
1
(mid-October - January)
Summer 1992
10
1
11
(February - mid-June)
Monsoon 1992
13
6
19
(mid-June - mid-October)
Winter 1992-93
14
8
22
(mid-October - January)
Summer 1 993
2
1
3
(February - mid-June)
Monsoon 1 993
0
0
0
(mid-June - mid-October)
Winter 1993-94
0
0
0
(mid-October - January)
Summer 1994
9
1
10
(February - mid-June)
24
4
28
search of food. Hence, it is likely that some kills
were undetected. The lack of pups (no breeding
was observed during 1992-93), and the presence
of only two wolves in the territory of the Nannaj
Pack in 1993, could also be other reasons for
low wolf depredation. Depredation was
conspicuous again during the winter of
1993-1994 and summer of 1994. Of the 38 kills,
the wolves made 28 (74%) in summer 1994
(Table 1 ) and the remaining in winter of 1993-94.
Maximum depredations occurred in summer
1992 and 1994 and also in monsoon 1992, which
was apparently due to the higher demand of
growing pups for food. Wolves relied on easy
prey at such times, and expended less energy
searching for blackbuck. Occasionally, two or
more goats were killed by wolves (n = 6) during
the same attack. We actually saw wolves hunting
and killing goats and sheep six times.
The livestock population of five villages
in the GIB Sanctuary namely, Nannaj, Mardi,
Fig. 2: Distribution of livestock kills by wolves between July 1991 and August 1994.
(Numbers represent the animals attacked simultaneously)
344
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3) DEC. 2000
LIVESTOCK DEPREDATION BY WOLVES IN THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD SANCTUARY
JAN APR JUL OCT JAN APR JUL OCT JAN APR JUL
I 1992 I 1993 I 1994 I
~ Goats 1 — Sheep
Fig. 3: Monthly variation of goats and sheep in the Sanctuary (numbers are average of weekly counts)
Akolakati, Vadala, and Narotewadi was much
higher than the actual numbers grazing in the
study area because some grazed outside the study
area. Our maximum counts were 743 sheep and
410 goats in 1992, 1,190 sheep and 531 goats in
1993, and 1,706 sheep and 813 goats in 1994
(Fig. 3).
The majority of the kills made during
daytime (52%) were found up to 0.2 km from
the protected pasture and wood lots of the
Sanctuary, probably because the wolves carry the
kills into the core areas of the Sanctuary which
are undisturbed. Four percent of kills were found
at 1 km or more from the Sanctuary. The
remaining kills (44%) were found between 0.2-
1.2 km from the Sanctuary plots.
The linear distance of diurnal wolf kills of
livestock from the protected plots of the
Sanctuary (Fig. 2) varied from 0.01 to 1.25 km
(x = 0.3 km, n = 81). In contrast, the distance of
the kills made at night varied from 3.0 to 3.5 km
(x = 3.2 km, n = 20). Sixty-three percent of the
kills were 1-4 m from a bush or some other
vegetative cover. Thirty-six percent were 5-12 m
from the nearest vegetation, and only 1% kills
were 13-15 m from vegetation, implying that
most of the victims may have been ambushed by
wolves.
Depredations claimed by farmers and
shepherds should be interpreted cautiously
because of false information. During this study,
seven false attacks were reported by locals. Most
stated that the wolves entered their livestock
corrals on the outskirts of the villages during
monsoon, particularly when it was raining. The
corrals generally have 1 m high walls which
wolves can easily jump over. Slightest laxity on
the part of shepherds guarding such livestock
confinements gave opportunity to wolf to make
a kill. This was confirmed four times by staying
with the shepherds. Over a period of time, the
wolf must have learned that attacking animals
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
345
LIVESTOCK DEPREDATION BY WOLVES IN THE GREA T INDIAN BUSTARD SANCTUARY
in a corral during a rainy night was easy, as men
and dogs both take shelter.
The wolves killed more goats and sheep
during the breeding years 1991-92 (U = 2,631,
P < 0.001, Mann- Whitney U Test) and 1993-94
(U = 1,280, P < 0.01, Mann- Whitney U Test)
than during the non-breeding year (i.e.,
1992-1993). Depredations were higher during
the denning period 1991-1992 (H = 48, P <
0.001, Kruskal- Wallis Test) as well as 1993-1994
(H= 14.3, P < 0.01, Kruskal- Wallis Test) when
pups were dependent on parents and/or helpers
for food, followed by the period when juveniles
also start hunting, and the least during
non-breeding years.
There was differential predation on goats and
sheep. Goats were more susceptible (x2= 14.25,
d.f. — 1 , P < 0.00 1 ) to wolf depredation than sheep
during the study period (1991-1994) despite
higher availability of the latter (Fig. 3). The ratio
of goats to sheep counts was 1:2.8. Similarly,
there was a difference between the number of
goats and sheep killed in 1992 (x2= 8, d.f. = 1, P
< 0.01) and 1994 (f- = 9.13, df = l,P< 0.005).
This may be due to one or more of the following
factors : preference of wolves for goats, goats were
ambushed by wolves when browsing shrubs and
short bushes, and goats were more dispersed as
compared to the compact herds of sheep. There
was a monthly variation in the abundance of
goats and sheep in our study area (Fig. 3).
Discussion
Any damage by wildlife in a developing
country like India is a major concern for
politicians, agriculturists and wildlife
conservationists. Lack of information can lead
to controversial decisions on managing a specific
wildlife damage problem (Berryman 1984). A
comprehensive national policy involving
adequate compensation payment to solve
wildlife-human conflicts is also hampered due
to inadequate information.
The wolf in Maharashtra and in India is
not secure, as it lives in the interfaces between
agricultural and grazing land. It is poisoned and
killed indiscriminately, particularly due to
wolf-man conflicts. During March-October 1996,
there were reports of 63 children being killed
and attacked by wolves in three districts of Uttar
Pradesh namely Pratapgarh, Jaunpur and
Sultanpur. This resulted in extreme public
animosity toward wolves in the entire country.
In February-March 1997, five children were
killed and five seriously mauled in Rae Bareli, a
district adjacent to Pratapgarh and Sultanpur,
followed by the killing of another child in Rae
Bareli during May- June 1998. Subsequently,
three more children were reported to be devoured
by wolves in Rae Bareli in July 1999. About 15
wolves were eliminated by police and forest
guards deployed in the affected areas during the
operation. Owing to such aberrant behaviour of
the wolf, coupled with livestock depredations, it
is difficult to have public support for wolf
conservation in India.
Multiple attack on livestock by wolves
appear to divert the attention of sheep dogs. By
the time they come to defend one victim, other
pack members attack another animal, confusing
the dogs. The wolves thus succeed in killing
livestock even when they are guarded by dogs.
The wolf population has witnessed some
resurgence in the Nannaj area of Solapur after
the establishment of the Great Indian Bustard
Sanctuary in 1980. The wolves have become
visible as harassment by people has been reduced
after protection of the area.
The utilization of prey by predators in the
nature reserves depends on many circumstances,
which change in space and time (Filonov 1980).
The Indian wolf has a litter during Dec.- Jan.,
and the pups leave the den in February or early
March. Most of the livestock get killed from
December to May. During this time, shepherds
try to kill wolves or pups in the dens. The
livelihood of the Dhangar tribes which keep goats
346
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3) DEC. 2000
LI VE STOCK DEPREDA TION B Y WOL VES IN THE GREA T INDIA N B USTA RD SANCTUA R Y
and sheep depends entirely on selling these
domestic ungulates and their products. They live
in the whole of the Sanctuary. Once an active
wolf den is located, they fumigate and block the
den to kill the pups and sometimes even adults.
The Indian government provides no
compensation to farmers for wolf depredation of
livestock. Most of the livestock owners-
shepherds, Dhangars, and fanners are very poor
(average annual income, < Rs. 9,000 [US S 300])
and loss of even a single goat or sheep is
substantial. The farmer and grazier communities
suffer on two accounts: their common grazing
land is taken under different soil conservation
and afforestation schemes, and they lose their
livestock to wolves. One of the most important
questions to be considered for wolf conservation
is the payment of adequate compensation by the
government (Sawarkar 1986). Currently in
India, compensation payment is made only for
the animals killed by tiger ( Panthera tigris tigris)
and lion ( Panthera leo persica).
Based on our investigations of
wolf-livestock conflicts during 1991-1994, the
total monetary losses of livestock due to wolves
in the GIB Sanctuary, Nannaj were about Rs.
97,380 (US $ 3,246) and Rs. 69,570 (US $
2,319), if the animals retrieved by graziers are
not considered. Livestock depredation is greater
in the Sanctuary, because of relatively higher wolf
density (4 wolves per 100 sq. km), whereas most
of the areas are inhabited by very low wolf
numbers (Kumar and Rahmani 1997). A
program in the United States which compensates
farmers for livestock destroyed by wolves pays
an average of US $ 32,170 per year (Paul 1995)
R E F E
Berryman, J.H. (1984): Wildlife damage control: a current
perspective. Proc. East. Wild l. Damage Control. Conf.
I: 3-5.
Filonov, C. (1980): Predator-prey problems in nature
reserves of the European part of the RSFSR.
J. Wildl. Manag. 44(2): 389-396.
Fritts, S.H., W.J. Paul, L.D. Mech & D.P. Scott (1992):
for the single state of Minnesota. The program
provides compensation as high as $ 400 per
animal killed by wolves (Fritts et al. 1992).
India is a densely populated country having
a thousand million people, yet the wolf is
surviving in highly populated areas around
settlements, villages and towns. The wolf habitat,
unlike that of the tiger, is densely populated, so
the problem of livestock depredation is more
complex and will remain so in the wolf areas.
There seems no easy solution to wolf-human
conflict but to reduce the problem by fully or
partially compensating the fanners for livestock
losses. The compensation after preliminary
investigation should be provided with least delay
if the wolf is to be preserved in the Sanctuary
and some other protected areas in India.
Acknowledgements
The research work was done under
Grassland Ecology Project, a joint effort of the
Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) and the
Aligarh Muslim University (AMU). We thank
the US Fish and Wildlife Service, particularly
Prof. Mark Behan and SFC Coordinator
Mr. David Ferguson, for funding and the
Ministry of Environment and Forests for
sponsoring the project. We also thank Dr. J. S.
Samant, then Director, BNHS and the Chairman,
Centre for Wildlife and Ornithology, AMU for
facilities. We thank Drs. Y.N. Rao, Ajith Kumar,
Ranjit Manakadan and Salim Javed for discussions
and the Forest Department of Maharashtra for help.
We also thank our field assistants, Mr. Rajesh
Jadhav and Mr. Navnath Vaghe.
ENCES
Trends and management of wolf-livestock conflicts in
Minnesota. Resour. Publ. 181. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Washington, D.C. 27 pp.
Kumar, S. & A.R. Rahmani (1997): Status of Indian grey
wolf Canis lupus pallipes and its conservation in
marginal areas of Solapur district, Maharashtra.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 94(3): 466-472.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
347
LIVESTOCK DEPREDA TIONBYWOL VESIN THE GREA T INDIAN BUSTARD SANCTUARY
Kumar, S. (1998): Ecology and behaviour of the Indian grey
wolf ( Canis lupus pallipes Sykes, 1 865) in the Deccan
grasslands of Solapur, Maharashtra, India. Ph.D. thesis,
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. 21 5 pp.
Mendelssohn, H. (1983a): Status of the wolf in the Middle
East. Acta Zool. Fennica 174 : 279-280.
Mendelssohn, H. (1983b): Conservation of the wolf in
Israel. Acta Zool Fennica 1 74: 281-282.
■ ■
Paul, W.J. (1995): Trends and management of
wolf-livestock conflicts in Minnesota. Abstracts
p # 8, International Symp. Wolves and Humans 2000
— A global perspective for managing conflict, March
9-12. Duluth, MN, U.S.A. 46 pp.
Sawarkar, V.B. (1986): Animal damage: predation on
domestic livestock by large carnivores. Indian Forester
1 12: 858-865.
■
348
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3) DEC 2000
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND CONSERVATION OF THE GOLDEN LANGUR
TRACHYPITHECUS GEEI KHAJURI A IN TRIPURA, NORTHEAST INDIA1
A.K. Gupta2 and David J. Chi vers3
(With seven text-figures)
Key words: Golden langur, Trachypithecus geei , Tripura, feeding, conservation
Feeding ecology of an introduced group of the golden langur (Trachypithecus geei) in Sepahijala
Wildlife Sanctuary is discussed with special reference to its conservation in its new habitat. Data
were collected using group-scan method. A total of 7,752 scans were made, feeding alone
accounting for 3,530 scans (45.5%). Diurnal and seasonal variation in the time spent on feeding
was not significant, but a very weak significant difference existed in the time spent on feeding in
different months. A total of 53 food species, belonging to 10 families, were used by the golden
langur, but only ten species accounted for about 57% of the feeding. Of the 28 families, ten
accounted for almost 78% of the food. The three most intensively used food species were: Ficus
racemosa , Salmalia malabarica , and Adenanthera pavonina. The golden langur shared food
plants with Trachypithecus phayrei and T. pileatus, and with the local human population. The
golden langur was mainly folivorous, spending most time feeding on young leaves (41 .4%). The
ability of the golden langur to survive on fast-growing exotic plantation species, to use food
resources on the ground, and to share resources with other user groups, has helped it to survive in
the wild. These qualities make the conservation of the golden langur feasible in its range, where
shifting cultivation and plantations of exotic species are common.
Introduction
The golden langur, Trachypithecus geei
Khajuria, discovered in 1956, is known to occur
in India from the Sankosh basin in the west to
Manas basin in the east, and from the
Assam-Bhutan border foothills in the south, to
the inner Himalayan range in the north. Earlier
reports on the distribution of this species (Gee
1955, 1961; Khajuria 1956, 1962) describe its
occurrence as confined to the Assam-Bhutan
border in Jamduar-Raimona area, in Raimona
Forest Range, Goalpara district, Assam. This
species was first observed in the Bhutan part of
'Accepted August, 2000
^Wildlife Institute of India,
PO Box 18, Chandrabani,
Dehra Dun 248 006, Uttaranchal, India.
3Wildlife Research Group
Department of Anatomy,
University of Cambridge,
Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3DY,
United Kingdom.
Manas Sanctuary by Wayre (1968a, 1968b), and
was later described from the Black Mountain
Range in Central Bhutan (Mukherjee 1978,
Mukherjee et al. 1993). Saha (1980) described
the actual range of the golden langur only in
India (Assam) and Bhutan and concluded that
this is a Bhutanese species, and only a marginal
part of its range lies within Indian territory
between 1 50 and 3,000 m above msl. On October
6, 1996, members of the Association for
Protection of Environment and Endangered
Species spotted a few golden langur feeding on
bamboo shoots in Sangsak Reserve Forest of Garo
Hills, Meghalaya (The Asian Age, November 27,
1996).
Mukherjee and Saha (1974) counted 125
individuals in 13 groups (3 groups from Bhutan
— one each from Panjurmane, Tama, and
Gaylegphung; and 10 groups from Assam — 7
from Jamduar and 3 from Raimona). Saha ( 1 980)
counted about 1,250 in 67 groups from west,
central, and east Bhutan provinces. More
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
349
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND CONSERVA TION OF THE GOLDEN LANGUR
Fig. 1 : Map of Tripura showing location of
Sepahijala Wildlife Sanctuary
systematic surveys in all northeastern states may
reveal a wider range in India. Mukherjee (1981)
counted 355 individuals in 34 groups from
Goalpara, Kamrup, and Dhubri districts in
Assam. Mukherjee (1992) also noted that their
number is less on the Indian side between east
of Sankosh and west of Manas, and more
abundant in the forests of central Bhutan.
Wangchuk (1995) sighted a total of 127
individuals along a 39 km transect in Mangde
Chu Valley of Central Bhutan, and estimated a
population of 4,341 individuals (2.1/sq. km). He
also noted the presence of Hanuman langurs in
the territories of golden langurs in Tsirang area,
and reported the possibility of their interbreeding.
Tripura does not lie in the distribution
range of this species. Yet, taking advantage of
the favourable habitat conditions, two captive
groups of golden langur were released into the
wild in 1988: one in Trishna Wildlife Sanctuary,
south Tripura, and the other in Sepahijala
Wildlife Sanctuary, (SWLS), west Tripura. The
golden langur group in SWLS has survived and
adapted to the wild (Gupta and Mukherjee 1994),
where this species shares the habitat with
Phayre’s langur (T. phayrei), capped langur
( T . pileatus ), rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatto ),
pig-tailed macaque (M nemestrina), and slow
loris (Nycticebus coucang) (Gupta 1996).
The golden langur is little studied for its
distribution status, population estimates, ecology
and behaviour. A brief study on its ecology and
behaviour was done by Saha and Mukherjee
(1974). In this study, a part of the project on Con-
servation Ecology of Primates and Human Impact
in northeast India, a detailed study of the ecology
and behaviour of one group of the golden langur
and its survival, vis-a-vis other primate species in
the study area, especially with reference to two
sympatric langur species, has been worked out.
Study Area
The study was conducted in Sepahijala
Wildlife Sanctuary (18.53 sq. km), West Tripura,
northeast India (Fig. 1). It is located about
35 km south of the capital Agartala and receives
an annual rainfall of about 2,000 mm. The mean
maximum temperature is 36 °C and mean
minimum temperature is 22 °C.
The sanctuary is a small island surrounded
by human habitation and agricultural fields. In
the past, evergreen forests occupied a large
portion of the sanctuary, but following large-scale
deforestation, due to human and livestock
pressure from 17 adjoining villages, these
evergreen forests now exist as scattered degraded
patches surrounded by plantations of timber,
cash-crops or fast growing exotic species. Some
of the oldest plantations in the area (about 50
years old) are those of major timber species such
as Tectona grandis , Gmelina arborea, Shorea
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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3) DEC 2000
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND CONSERVA TION OF THE GOLDEN LANGUR
robusta, Dipterocarpus turbinatus, and Albizzia
procera.
Methods
Study animal
Khajuria (1960) described the golden
langur, and its taxonomy was discussed by
Oboussier and Maydell (1959) and Khajuria
(1960), This langur is placed with Phayre’s and
capped langurs in the conservation priority
ratings (Endey, 1987), in Schedule I in the
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
Ecological data collection and analysis
After a period of three months, during
which the study group of golden langur was
habituated and the study area mapped, intensive
ecological studies started in December 1993. The
group was followed for two consecutive days each
month, due to time constraints, from dawn to
dusk for an annual cycle of 12 months. Time
spent on different activities was estimated by
group scans (Altmann 1974). A ‘scan’ refers to
a single recording of the behaviour of an
individual within 15 minute intervals, which
provided data on feeding. Feeding includes
handling, chewing, and ingesting of a food item.
Food items were classified as leaf buds, young
and mature leaves, flower buds and flowers,
unripe and ripe fruit, seeds, and twigs. Whenever
possible, food plants were identified. The animal
food consumed by the study group was also
identified.
Raemaekers and Chivers (1980) have
suggested that in a variable and complex forest
environment, continual monitoring and frequent
sampling of primate groups from dawn to dusk
on at least 5, preferably 8-10 consecutive days,
is important for assessing the behavioural and
ecological repertoire of any primate group. But
since the main aim of this study was to collect
data on the use of food resources, which were
also used by two other sympatric langur species
and resident human population, a 2-day
observation period could prove sufficient. The
data collected from dawn to dusk for 2 continuous
days and notes (during surveys, vegetation
samplings, phenological studies) provided the
first ever systematic data on the behavioural
ecology of golden langur, covering all the cyclical
changes in vegetation and environmental
parameters over a year. Curtin (1980), in an
almost similar situation, used alternating periods
of 2-3 day dawn-to-dusk observation periods each
month for studying the ecology and behaviour
of two sympatric species ( Presbytis melalophos
and Trachypithecus obscurus).
The percent feeding time during the day
was calculated from:
Tf = (nf x 100)/N, where
Tf — % daytime spent on feeding,
nf — number of feeding records and,
N — total number of activity records for
the day.
Feeding time on different plant species and
parts, as well as animal diets, was also estimated
using the above equation (Gupta and Kumar 1994).
Spearman rank-order correlation
coefficients were used to analyse the relationships
between diet and phenology. The preference
index (PI) was calculated for each food species
in relation to its abundance in the study area:
one divides percentage feeding time on a given
species by its relative abundance, calculated as
the percentage of total basal area (Kumar 1987).
Monthly dietary diversity was calculated using
Shannon- Wiener index of diversity (FT) (Pielou
1966), using both plant species and parts in the
analysis.
Vegetation data collection and analysis
Four plots were established within the
study area and 1,090 trees of 112 species,
selecting at least 5 trees of more than 20 cm girth
at breast height (gbh) from each species. The
trees were numbered and measured for their
height, gbh, crown width, and crown density.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC 2000
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FEEDING ECOLOGY AND CONSER VA TION OF THE GOLDEN LANGUR
Each plot was monitored once a month on a
predetermined date. It took 2 to 3 days to visit
all marked trees over an area of about 60 hectares.
Each marked tree was visually scanned for
different plant parts: leaf buds, young leaves,
mature leaves, flower buds, flowers, unripe fruit,
ripe fruit, and seeds. The abundance of a given
plant part was recorded as the proportion of total
canopy volume using a 0 to 3 scale, referring to
the value 0%, 1-10%, 11-50%, and more than
50% respectively (Raemaekers 1977, Bennett
1983, Hardy 1988). Additional information on
study animals, study site, and general methods
is available in Gupta (1996).
Results
Group Size and Composition
At the beginning of this study in December
1993, there was one group of 7 golden langurs
(1 adult male, 3 adult females and 3 infants). In
January 1994, one infant was bom, but it did not
survive. In July, one adult male escaped from
the neighbouring Sepahijala Zoo and joined the
group. In the same month, it formed a separate
group with one adult female from the original
group and occupied a different area within
SWLS. Observations were continued on the
original group, which now consisted of 6
individuals. This group shared the habitat with
17 groups of T. phayrei , 18 of T. pileatus, 1 1 of
Macaca nemestrina , about 37 of M. mulatta and
3 groups of Nycticebus coucang.
Activity Patterns
A total of 7,752 scans were made on the
study group, representing about 304 hours of
observations over 24 full days in 12 months with
an average of about 646 (sd = 94) scans/month.
Feeding accounted for 45.5 % (n = 3,530) of the
daytime, followed by resting (26.7%, n = 2,071)
and travel (9.5 %, n = 737). Other activities like
grooming and play accounted for 18.3% (n =
1,414) (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2: Time spent (%) in different activities (N=7752)
352
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3) DEC 2000
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND CONSER VA TION OF THE GOLDEN LANGUR
Feeding
Feeding normally started around 0430 hrs
in summer and 0530 hrs in winter. The langurs
had two feeding peaks during their 12 to 1 3 hours
of activity in any given day, one peak just after
waking up (between 0630 and 0800 hrs), and
the second peak in the late afternoon just before
roosting (between 1530 and 1700 hrs).
Daily, monthly, and seasonal variations in
feeding time
The daily feeding time ranged between
30% (December) and 64.9% (November) (mean
= 45.5, sd = 10.1, CV = 22.2%).
A very weak significant difference was found
in the feeding time in different months (K- W 1 -
way Anova, p >0.09), which varied between 36%
and 62.6% (mean = 45.6%, sd = 9.4, CV = 20.6%).
Most feeding was observed in November (62.6%)
and the least in December (36%) (Fig. 3).
The variation in feeding time by the golden
langur was not marked when the months were
grouped into three seasons: winter (Nov. through
Feb.), summer (Mar. through May), and
monsoon (Jun. through Oct.). There was no
significant difference between the seasons in
feeding time (K-W 1-way Anova, p = 0.22) in
monsoon months being 49.9%, and in winter
months 45.6%. The feeding time in summer
months (39.8%) was only weakly significantly
different from monsoon months (Mann- Whitney
U-Wilcoxon Rank Test, p = 0.07), but not
significantly different from winter months
(Mann- Whitney U-Wilcoxon Rank Test, p = 0.49).
There was no significant difference in the feeding
time between winter and monsoon months
(Mann- Whitney U-Wilcoxon Rank Test, p = 0.5 1 ).
Use of food plant species
A total of 53 plant species were used during
the annual feeding cycle by the golden langur.
Of these, 45 (84.9%) were trees, 2 (3.8%) shrubs,
and 6(11.3%) were climbers. Of all the food plant
species, the majority (N = 42, 79.2%) provided
only one type of food item at any given time,
while the remaining eleven species (20.8%)
provided more than one type of food items at
any given time (Table 1).
JOURNAL, BOMBA Y NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC 2000
353
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND CONSER VA TION OF THE GOLDEN LANGUR
Table 1
FOOD PLANTS OF THE GOLDEN LANGUR IN SEPAHIJALA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
Species
Common names
Family
Feeding (N)
% of Total
Parts eaten
E/N
P/NP
FORM
Odina wodier
Kaimala
Anacardiaceae
100
2.8
fb, fl
N
NP
T
Polyalthia
longifolia
Deodaru
Annonaceae
3
0.1
yl, ml
N
NP
T
Mikania
cordata
Mikania
Asteraceae
208
5.9
yl, fl
E
NP
C
Stereospermum
personatum
Soya awal
Bignoniaceae
43
1.2
yi
N
P
T
Salmalia
malabarica
Simul
Bombacaceae
122
3.5
yl, fl
N
P
T
Bursera serrate
Neur
Burseraceae
25
0.7
yi
N
P
T
Caesalpinia
pulcherrima
Radhachura
Caesalpiniaceae
55
1.6
yi
E
P
T
Delonix regia
Krishnachura
Caesalpiniaceae
430
12.2
yl, fl, s
N
NP
T
Bauhinia malabarica
Kanchan
Caesalpiniaceae
36
1.0
yi
N
NP
T
Terminalia bellirica
Bahera
Combretaceae
64
1.8
urf, twig
N
P
T
Anogeissus
acuminata
Kailodi
Combretaceae
32
0.9
pt, yl
N
NP
T
Dillenia indica
Chalta
Dilleniaceae
40
1.1
ml
N
P
T
Dillenia pentagyna
Hargaza
Dilleniaceae
26
0.7
fb, fl
N
NP
T
Dioscorea alata
Maiya-alu
Dioscoreaceae
6
0.2
yi
E
P
C
Pterocarpus
dalbergioides
Andaman padauk
Dipterocarpaceae
63
1.8
yi
E
P
T
Mallotus
philippensis
Sinduri
Euphorbiaceae
55
1.6
pt, urf
N
P
T
Castanopsis
tribuloides
Kanta gach
Fagaceae
17
0.5
s
N
NP
T
Garcinia cow a
Kao
Guttiferae
87
2.5
1ml
N
NP
T
Mesua ferrea
Nageshwar
Guttiferae
5
0.1
s
N
P
T
Litsea glutinosa
Kakra
Lauraceae
17
0.5
fb, fl
N
NP
T
Michelia champaca
Champa
Magnoliaceae
9
0.3
yi
N
NP
T
Hibiscus rosa-
chinensis
Gurhal
Malvaceae
1
0.0
yi
N
P
S
Acacia
auriculiformis
Acacia
Mimosaceae
331
9.4
s
E
P
T
Adenanthera
pavonine
Raktanchan
Mimosaceae
123
3.5
yi
E
P
T
Leucaena
leucocephala
Kupa
Mimosaceae
98
2.8
yi
E
P
T
Artocarpus
chaplasha
Chamal
Moraceae
183
5.2
if
N
P
T
Ficus racemosa
Vat
Moraceae
174
4.9
ml
N
NP
T
Ficus hispid a
Dumbur
Moraceae
125
3.5
urf
N
NP
T
Ficus spp.
Loijuri
Moraceae
71
2.0
urf
N
NP
T
Artocarpus lakoocha
Dewa chamal
Moraceae
61
1.7
if
N
P
T
*Ficus glomerata
Jogya dumber
Moraceae
35
1.0
urf
N
NP
T
Ficus religiosa
Pipal
Moraceae
32
0.9
yi
N
NP
T
Syzygium fruticosum
Ban jam
Myrtaceae
46
1.3
si, yl
N
NP
T
Dalbergia lanceolate
Bhat koroi
Papilionaceae
49
1.4
yi
N
P
T
Ziziphus rugosa
Ban boroi
Rhamnaceae
7
0.2
urf
N
NP
T
Gardenia turgida
Gandhraj
Rubiaceae
11
0.3
fb
E
NP
T
* Ficus glomerate is treated as a sub-species of F. racemose
354
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3) DEC 2000
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND CONSER VA TION OF THE GOLDEN LANGUR
Table 1 ( contd)
FOOD PLANTS OF THE GOLDEN LANGUR IN SEPAHIJALA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
Species
Common names
Family
Feeding (N)
% of Total
Parts eaten
E/N
P/NP
FORM
Anthocephalus
Kadam
Rubiaceae
8
0.2
yi
N
P
T
cadamba
Pterospermum
Banduri
Sterculiaceae
11
0.3
bark
N
NP
T
semisagittatum
Aquilaria agcillocha
Agar
Thymeliaceae
21
0.6
yi
N
P
T
Microcos paniculata
Pichla
Tiliaceae
28
0.8
rf
N
NP
T
Trema orientalis
Banalya
Ulmaceae
113
3.2
yi
N
NP
T
Trema spp.
Lai banalya
Ulmaceae
8
0.2
ml, 1ml
N
NP
T
Unidentified
Phul gamar
Unidentified
6
0.2
yi
N
NP
T
Gmelina arborea
Gamar
Verbenaceae
144
4.1
yi
N
P
T
Nyctcinthes
Rat-ki-rani
Verbenaceae
3
0.1
s, fl
N
P
T
arbortristis
Unidentified climber 4
UIC-4
174
4.9
s
N
NP
C
Unidentified climber 3
UIC-3
112
3.2
fb,fl
N
NP
C
Unidentified climber 1
UIC-1
41
1.2
yi
N
NP
C
Unidentified tree 1
UIT-1
38
1.1
urf
N
NP
T
Unidentified climber 2
UIC-2
14
0.4
s
N
NP
C
Unidentified free 4
UIT-4
14
0.4
yi
N
NP
T
Unidentified free 2
UIT-2
3
0.1
yi
N
NP
T
Unidentified free 3
UIT-3
2
0.1
fb, fl
N
NP
T
si = sprouting leaf, yl =
= young leaf, ml =
: mature leaf, fb =
flower buds, fl
= flowers, pt =
petiole, 1ml =
lamina, s
= seeds
urf = unripe fruit, rf = ripe fruit.
N = native, E = exotic, P = plantation species, NP = non-plantation species, UN = unknown
Form: T = tree, S = shrub, C = climber
Out of 53 food species, 44 species belonged
to 28 families and 9 species could not be
identified (Table 1). Leguminosae and Moraceae
families accounted for more than half (51.1%)
of the total feeding time. Similar to capped
langur, the food plants belonging to Leguminosae
(together with Mimosaceae, Caesalpiniaceae, and
Papilionaceae) were used most (3 1.8%), followed
by Moraceae (19.3%). Eight families
(Anacardiaceae, Asteraceae, Bombacaceae,
Combretaceae, Dilleniaceae, Guttiferae,
Ulmaceae and Verbenaceae) together accounted
for about 27% of the total feeding time. The
remaining 18 identified and 9 unidentified
families accounted for 22% of the total feeding
time (Fig. 4). The number of food species
belonging to these ten major families varied from
1 (Asteraceae, Anacardiaceae, and Bombacaceae)
to 7 (Moraceae and Leguminosae).
Daily, monthly, and seasonal variation in
plant species use
The number of food plant species used
in each full-day observation was consistent,
ranging from 3 to 14 (mean = 9, sd = 2.8).
The number of plant species used each month
varied from 7 to 18 (mean = 13.5, sd = 3.2), but
these variations were very weakly significant
(K-W 1-way Anova, p = 0.1). The maximum
number of food species were used in April (n =
18), and the least in June (n = 7). The total
number of plant food species used in three
seasons varied between 28 and 42 (mean = 31.6,
sd = 3.8).
Use of plant food species between seasons
also did not vary significantly (K-W 1-way
Anova, p>0.1), and was marginally higher in
monsoon (64.2%), than in winter (62.3%) and
summer (52.8%).
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC 2000
355
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND CONSERVATION OF THE GOLDEN LANGUR
Fig. 4: Time spent feeding on major food plant families and number of species in each family by
the golden langur in Tripura
Use of native and exotic plant species
Out of a total of 53 food species, 45
(84.9%), were native plant species (including 9
unidentified species of doubtful identification),
and only 8 (15.1 %) were exotic. Unlike the
capped langur, the time spent on native food
species was higher (74.7%, n = 2,635) than on
exotic species (25.3%, n = 895).
Use of plantation and non-plantation species
Twenty-three (43.4%) food species used by
golden langur in their annual diet were the
common forestry plantation species and the
remaining 30 (56.6%), including all 9
unidentified species, were the non-plantation
species in the study area. The feeding time on
plantation species was slightly less (43.5%,
n = 1,536) than on non-plantation species
(56.5%, n= 1,994).
Top ten food species
Based on their contribution to the annual
diet of golden langurs, the top ten species
(Mikania cordata, Acacia auriculiformis,
Adenanthera pavonina , Ficus hispida, Delonix
regia , Salmalia malabarica , Ficus racemosa ,
Artocarpus chaplasha, Gmelina arborea and an
unidentified climber), accounted for about 57%
(n = 2,014) of total feeding time. The monthly
feeding time on these species was consistent, and
ranged from 20.8% to 85.3% (mean = 55, sd =
18.5, CV = 33.6%). The total number of top ten
food species contributing to the diet in any one
month varied from a minimum 3 (January,
March, and June) to a maximum of 6 (December
and July) species. In 9 out of 12 months, these
species accounted for more than 50% of the total
feeding time on all the species in any given
month.
In March and June, only one of the top
ten species, the unidentified climber and
Artocarpus chaplasha respectively, accounted
for more 55.8% and 55.2% of the total feeding
time. Among the top ten food species, only one
species, an unidentified climber, was foraged in
one month (March) only, but the remaining 9
356
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3) DEC 2000
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND CONSER VA TION OF THE GOLDEN LANGUR
Table 2
FEEDING TIME (%) ON TOP TEN FOOD SPECIES BY THE GOLDEN LANGUR
IN SEPAHIJALA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
Month Feeding on top ten species (%) Total (%)
AA
DR
MC
SM
FR
FH
AP
UIC
AC
GA
December 1993
15.0
6.1
11.3
0.8
7.3
12.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
52.6
January 1994
31.3
0.0
2.3
0.0
17.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
51.2
February
3.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
8.3
21.7
0.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
33.9
March
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
9.9
2.9
0.0
55.8
0.0
0.0
68 6
April
3.0
5.7
0.0
0.0
4.9
0.0
7.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
20.8
May
1.4
19.4
0.0
0.0
22.3
0.0
9.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
52.5
June
0.0
0.0
0.3
2.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
5.2
0.0
57.7
July
0.0
8.0
6.2
14.6
0.0
5.8
6.6
0.0
0.0
18.2
59.5
August
0.3
44.9
13.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.1
0.0
0.0
4.5
65.3
September
0.0
13.8
- 5.4
12.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.0
3.4
35.6
October
23.0
26.6
18.9
0.0
0.0
3.9
9.8
0.0
0.0
3.1
85.3
November
21.2
15.5
5.4
10.1
0.0
0.0
7.3
0.0
2.4
15.5
77.4
N
331
430
208
122
174
125
123
174
183
144
2014
%
9.4
12.2
5.9
3.5
4.9
3.5
3.5
4.9
5.2
4.1
57.1
Sd
8.2
11.7
5.3
3.3
5.9
3.9
3.6
4.6
4.9
3.7
55.0
CV(%)
11.3
13.6
6.3
5.5
7.6
6.7
4 A
16.1
15.9
6.4
18.5
AA = Acacia auriculiformis, DR = Delonix regia, MC = Mikania cordata, FR = Ficus racemosa, FH = Ficus hispida,
AP = Adenanthera pavonina , UIC = Unidentified climber, A C = Artocarpus chaplasha, GA = Gmelina arborea
species were foraged during 3 to 8 months
(Table 2). Delonix regia and Adenanthera
pavonina were fed upon most (12.2%) and least
(3.5%), among all top ten-food species.
Preference Indices
Of these top ten species, 8 were represented
in the 12 vegetation transects (. Mikania cordata
and one unidentified climber were excluded from
the analysis). Preference indices for each of the
8 (top ten) food species were calculated, based
on their relative abundance within the study area,
and proportion of total feeding time on the given
species. Gmelina arborea had the highest
preference index (PI) value of 3 1 .5, followed by
Delonix regia (21.4). Similar to capped langur,
Acacia auriculiformis was lowest in its PI value
(1.2), although feeding time on this species was
second (9.4%) only to Delonix regia (12.2%).
Ficus racemosa , Salmalia malabarica and
Adenanthera pavonina were less abundant in
the study area, but were highly preferred as food
species with relatively high PI values: 10, 6.1,
and 5.8 respectively. Artocarpus chaplasha was
the second most abundant species in the study
area, after Acacia auriculiformis, but unlike the
latter species, Artocarpus chaplasha was also
highly preferred as food (PI = 8.7) (Table 3).
Out of these top ten food species, three were
exotic, accounting for 18.8% of the total feeding
time on all species, while 7 were native,
accounting for 38.3% of the total feeding time
(Table 3).
Five of the top ten species were forestry
plantation species in the study area, and
accounted for 25.6% of the total feeding time,
while the remaining 5 were non-plantation
species, accounting for 3 1 .5% of the total feeding
time on all species (Table 3).
Six of the top ten species, namely, Acacia
auriculiformis, Mikania cordata, Delonix regia,
Ficus racemosa, F. hispida, and Artocarpus
chaplasha were also among the top ten species
used by Phayre’s langur. Golden langur shared
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC 2000
357
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND CONSER VA TION OF THE GOLDEN LANGUR
Table 3
PREFERENCE INDICES OF TOP TEN FOOD SPECIES USED BY
GOLDEN LANGUR IN SEPAHIJALA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TRIPURA
Species
% Abundance
Feeding
N %
PI
Status
Form
Acacia auriculiformis
8.1
331
9.4
1.2
E
P
Delonix regia
0.6
430
12.2
21.4
N
NP
Salmalia malabarica
0.6
122
5.9
6.1
N
P
Ficus racemosa
0.5
174
5.0
10.0
N
NP
Ficus hispida
2.2
125
3.6
1.6
N
NP
Adenanthera pavonina
0.6
123
3.5
5.8
E
P
Artocarpus chaplasha
6.6
183
5.2
8.7
N
P
Gmelina arborea
0.1
144
1.4
31.5
N
P
Mikania cordata
Not known
208
5.9
-
E
NP
Unidentified climber
Not known
174
5.0
-
N
NP
E = exotic, N = native, P = plantation species, NP = non-plantations species
only five of the top-ten food species (. Acacia
auriculiformis , Adenanthera pavonina, Mikania
cordata, Delonix regia, and Ficus hispida ) with
capped langurs in the study area.
Food species used by Phayre’s and capped
langur groups
Of the 53 food species used by golden
langurs 30 (56.6%) were used by the Phayre’s
langur, while the remaining 23 species (43 .4%),
were exclusively fed by the golden langur. These
common food species accounted for 76.4% of the
total feeding time by golden langur and about
67% by Phayre’s langur group.
Only 26 (49. 1%) food species, out of a total
of 53 used by the golden langur, were common
with the capped langur. These 26 species
accounted for about 75% of the total feeding time
on all the food species by golden langur, while
their contribution to the feeding time of the
capped langur was about 70%.
Food species also used by the local human
population
Of the 53 food species used by golden
langurs, 23 (43.4%) were also used by the local
human population for fuelwood, fodder, small
construction timber, timber, food, and so on. The
contribution of these 23 species in the annual
diet of golden langur was about 48.1 % (n =
1,703).
Use of plant parts
Golden langurs spent most time feeding
on young leaves (41.4%), followed by seeds
(25 .7%), unripe fruit (11.1 %), ripe fruit (10.1 %),
flowers (9%), mature leaves (2.4%), and others
(0. 3 %) (Fig. 5).
The consumption of young leaves was
consistently high through all the months
compared with other plant parts. Feeding on
young leaves was least in March (17.6%) and
highest in July (60%). The monthly variation in
feeding time was also least for young leaves (CV
= 37.9%). There was no significant monthly
difference in feeding time on any of the different
plant parts.
Only young leaves were eaten in all the 12
months, followed by seeds for 1 1 months (except
in June), and flowers for 9 months. The use of
other plant parts ranged between 3 and 6 months.
Time spent eating only flowers was highly
significant (K-W 1-way Anova, p = 0.004).
However, when the monthly data were pooled
into three seasons, time spent feeding on flowers
was not significant. Seasonal variation in feeding
358
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3) DEC. 2000
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND CONSER VA TION OF THE GOLDEN LANGUR
time on other plant parts was not significant.
Of the 53 food species used by the golden
langur group, 40 (75.5%) were for young leaves,
followed by 14 (26.4%) for flowers, 10 (18.9%)
each for unripe fruit and seeds, 8 (15.1%) for
ripe fruits, 3 (5.7%) for mature leaves, and only
one (1.9%) for other plant parts (Fig. 6). The
total number of species taken in any one month
for different plant parts also varied. For the
consumption of young leaves, it ranged between
6 and 12 species, but for other plant parts between
1 and 4 only, which was consistent across the
months, with most of the food plant species being
used for young leaves, and very few for other
plant parts
Dillenia indica, Garcinia cowa and Trema
spp. were the three main species used for feeding
on mature leaves. One unidentified climber
(UIC3) and Delonix regia were two main species
for flowers. Several species of Ficus and unripe
pods of many Leguminosae were the main source
of unripe fruit. Both Artocarpus chaplasha and
A. lakoocha were the major sources of ripe fruit,
besides Dillenia pentagyna. Acacia
auriculiformis, Delonix regia and Adenanthera
pavonina were the major source of seeds in the
annual diet of the golden langur group.
Availability of plant parts
The monthly variation in the availability
of young and mature leaves, ripe and unripe fruit
and seeds are given in Fig. 7. Young leaves,
which the group fed on extensively each month,
were available for many food plants throughout
the year. The food species with young leaves were
scarce in the dry months (November through
February), when fruit and seeds were abundant.
No correlation was found between the feeding
time on young leaves in each month and with
the number of species with young leaves
(Spearman rank correlation coefficient r =0.14,
p - 0.67)
Mature leaves were available mostly during
the late monsoon and in winter months, but
feeding on mature leaves was only weakly
negatively correlated (r = -0.33, p = 0.29) with
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC 2000
359
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND CONSERVA TION OF THE GOLDEN LANGUR
their availability. This was because the langurs
used only three species ( Dillenia indica, Garcinia
cowa , and Trema spp.), and the feeding time was
dependent on the availability of mature leaves
on these three species, irrespective of the
availability from other species.
Negative non-significant correlation was
found between the feeding time on unripe fruits
and seeds and the number of species with these
plant parts (rg = 0.35, p = 0.25; and r$ = 0.33,
p = 0.28, respectively). The reason for this is
also the dependence of langurs for these food
items on only 1 to 3 plant species, irrespective of
the availability of these plant parts on other
species.
Ripe fruits of Artocarpus chaplasha and
A. lakoocha were available only during the dry
months (November through February), but more
than 70% of the total feeding time on ripe fruit
was only in one month, i.e. June. Therefore, no
correlation was found between the availability
and feeding time on ripe fruit (rg = 0.03, p = 0.90).
Discussion
Golden langurs are primarily folivorous,
but were able to switch over to a fruit and seed
diet when foliage was scarce. Most of the food
species were used for young foliage. Other plant
parts were consumed from a few food species,
most of which were common with the Phayre’s
and capped langur ( Acacia auriculiformis ,
Adenanthera pavonina, Delonix regia, for seeds,
and D. pentagyna , Artocarpus lakoocha , and
A. chaplasha for ripe fruit). Although golden
langur shared the habitat with two other species,
there was some resource partitioning by the use
of different food species for specific food items.
The primary source for mature leaves ( D . indica,
Garcinia cowa ) for golden langurs differed from
Fig. 6: Number and % of food species used for feeding on different plant parts by
the golden langur in Tripura
360
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3) DEC 2000
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND CONSER VA TION OF THE GOLDEN LANGUR
Phayre’s (Ficus racemosa) and capped langurs
(Ailanthus integrifolia, Pterocarpus
dalbergioides). While several species of Ficus
were used by golden langurs as primary sources
for unripe fruit, other langurs used two species
of Ficus and Artocarpus chaplasha (Phayre’s
langur) and Artocarpus heterophyllus (capped
langur). Although primary food sources for ripe
fruit and seeds were the same in all three species
(D. pentagyna for ripe fruit; A. auriculiformis ,
A. pavonina , D, regia for seeds), on most
occasions the three langur species visited the
same food patches at different times. Inter-group
relations with capped and Phayre’s langur were
always relaxed, as on occasions the groups shared
food trees, approaching within 5 to 10 m of each
other, and infants mixing and playing with each
other. The tendency of golden langurs to feed on
the ground and very close to human habitation
also helped them use resources that were not
available to the other two sympatric species.
In the use of food plants, golden langurs
shared species with Phayre’s and capped langurs
and the local people. As in Phayre’s and capped
langur, most of the preferred food species for
golden langurs were exotic fast growing
plantation species from Leguminosae and
Moraceae families.
The ability of golden langurs to survive on
a few fast growing exotic plantation species could
be used as a main management tool to increasing
the existing resource base through plantation of
such species. This is likely to benefit other
different user groups (local human populations
and other wildlife species sharing the habitat),
besides the golden langur.
Acknowledgements
This study was funded by the Association
of Commonwealth Universities, UK, the Wildlife
Institute of India, Dehra Dun, NYZS, the Wildlife
Conservation Society, USA, the National
Geographic Society, the International
Primatological Society, the American Society of
Primatologists, and the Newton Trust, Trinity
College, Cambridge. Permission to work in
Sepahijala Wildlife Sanctuary, Tripura was
kindly given by the Chief Wildlife Warden, Forest
Department, Tripura.
m m
FL
SEED
B
RF
1
URF
□
ML
1
YL
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC 2000
361
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND CONSERVA TION OF THE GOLDEN LANGUR
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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(3) DEC. 2000
OVIPOSITION BEHAVIOUR OF THREE INTRASPECIFIC
VARIANTS OF THE VISCERAL LEISHMANIASIS (KALA-AZAR)
VECTOR PHLEBOTOMUS ARGENTIPES * 1
K. Ilango2
( With one text-figure)
Key words: Phlebotomus argentipes , visceral leishmaniasis vector, oviposition behaviour,
intraspecific variation
Oviposition behaviour of Phlebotomus argentipes Annandale & Brunetti sensu lato studied in
the visceral leishmaniasis (VL, kala-azar) endemic and non-endemic parts of Tamil Nadu suggests
that (i) the species has 3 intraspecific variants (possibly representing separate species), (ii) the
mean number of eggs laid per fly is higher in the flies fed on cattle than on human beings, (iii) the
variant human-fed form is sympatric with the neighbouring cattle-fed form, while both the cattie
fed variants are allopatric in nature, (iv) the possible cause for the vector capacity of the form
feeding on humans is discussed, (v) research on the behaviour, based on genetics and using
molecular biological tools such as isoenzyme analysis and DNA paw printing, is needed to resolve
the taxonomic status of P. argentipes.
Introduction
Phlebotomus argentipes Annandale &
Brunetti sensu lato, described by Annandale
(1908), has been studied extensively as a vector
of the Indian visceral leishmaniasis (VL, kala-
azar). The currently known geographical and
biological variations of P. argentipes may consist
of a complex of sibling species (Seccombe et al.
1993), that are morphologically similar but
different in behaviour. Recently, two
morphospecies found sympatrically were
described from the city of Chennai (=Madras)
(Ilango et al 1994), one of the known foci of
VL.
Incrimination of vector species among the
species complex is extremely important for
taxonomists before developing any control
strategies. However, the problem among closely
allied variants in insect vectors is that
competition for resources, such as feeding hosts
and mating sites, in similar ecological conditions,
'Accepted July, 1999
Treshwater Biological Station, Zoological Survey of India,
1 -1 -300/B, Ashok Nagar, Hyderabad 500 020,
Andhra Pradesh, India.
leads to divergence of behaviour and formation
of two or more species (Dobzhansky et al. 1976).
This is usually found in disease endemic regions.
To differentiate such closely related species,
morphological taxonomy serves a limited
purpose, but molecular techniques and genetics
based behavioural studies are extremely reliable.
In view of this, while surveying the wetland
mosquito fauna of Tamil Nadu, the oviposition
behaviour of P. argentipes was studied in parts
of the state where kala-azar is endemic.
Study Area
In Tamil Nadu, the city of Chennai and
two rural districts, Ramanad and Tirunelveli,
known endemic foci of VL, were surveyed for
the phlebotomine sandfly fauna during 1987-90.
Recently, a few cases of kala-azar were reported
from Chennai, but the disease was unknown in
the Ramanad and Tirunelveli district. Chennai
was, therefore, considered an endemic focus,
while Ramanad and Tirunelveli were designated
as non-endemic. For the present study,
Tirunelveli (peridomestic) and Chennai
(domestic and peridomestic) were chosen for
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3). DEC. 2000
363
OVIPOSITION BEHA VIOUR OF THE VISCERAL LEISHMANIASIS VECTOR
sample collection because they are widely
separated from one another, and represent
different habitats. Further, in Chennai, samples
were collected from the centre of the city,
Royapettah (domestic) where VL was known to
exist, and from the suburban village Poonamalle,
30 km west of Chennai, from where VL was not
known.
Method
Veeravandiyur village in Tirunelveli
district and Poonamalle village near Chennai are
identical habitats in their housing pattern,
surrounded by cattle sheds, paddy fields and
irrigation ponds. Royapettah has typical urban
dwellings with crowded housing. Stray cattle
were often found on the streets. Humans and
cattle are the sources of blood meal for
P. argentipes prior to oviposition.
As P. argentipes is nocturnal, night
collection of samples was made from both human
dwellings and cattle sheds. In all the 3 study sites,
blood-fed females were collected from the
abdomen of cattle in Veeravandiyur and
Poonamalle villages, humans also served as bait
simultaneously. Blood-fed flies were individually
stored in !4" x 3" glass tubes and left undisturbed
overnight to oviposit. 5% glucose solution soaked
in cotton was supplied to each fly as nutritional
supplement.
Results
Fig. 1 shows the locations (ABC) from
which the females of P. argentipes were collected;
the bar diagrams represent the mean no. of eggs
laid per fly. The distance between Veeravandiyur
(A) and Royapettah (B) or Poonamalle (C) is 680
km and Royapettah (B) and Poonamalle (C)
30 km. In Veeravandiyur and Poonamalle
villages, the female flies showed a greater
preference for cattle than for human beings,
whereas in Royapettah they were equally
Fig. 1. Locations of three intraspecific female
variants (A, B, C) of P. argentipes collected. Bar
diagrams represent the mean no. of eggs laid per fly
attracted to both hosts.
(A) Veeravandiyur village, Tirunelveli
Total no. of flies captured (N) = 39
No. of eggs laid per fly
Mean (x) = 71.64 ±3.64 (s.d)
Range (R) = 65-77
(B) Royapettah in Chennai
Total no. of flies captured (N) = 21
No. of eggs laid per fly
Mean (x) = 41.66 ±4.83 (s.d)
Range (R) = 32-50
(C) Poonamalle village near Chemiai
Total no. of flies captured (N) = 32
No. of eggs laid per fly
Mean (x) = 69.00 ±4.46 (s.d)
Range (R) = 54-76
364
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3) DEC 2000
OVIPOSITION BEHA VIOUR OF THE VISCERAL LEISHMANIASIS VECTOR
Discussion
The present study reveals some intriguing
biological variations in the oviposition behaviour
of P. argentipes collected from 3 different places,
their host preference and the mean number of eggs
laid per fly. The eggs laid by the variants AC are
similar in their oviposition sites and mean no. of
eggs laid per fly, but both are quite different from
B. The ecological distribution of these variants
shows that A is allopatric to BC and B sympatric
to C. AC are more strongly attracted to a blood
meal from cattle than from humans. B is attracted
to both cattle and humans, the latter providing a
better opportunity to transmit kala-azar.
Several possible explanations can be given
for the differences in behaviour and distribution
of these variants. For AC, feeding on cattle
appears to be more advantageous, as they offer a
large, open body surface where the blood meal
can be taken immediately after mating. Cattle
blood is richer in iron than human blood and
perhaps they are less sensitive to biting. Hence,
cattle are preferred by AC. Human blood meal is
preferred by B, which could be the vector of
visceral leishmaniasis.
These observations coincide with the known
findings on the two morphologically different
species. In the present study, the intraspecific
variants AC are similar to the morphological
species A, which occurs in Tamil Nadu and the
whole of South Asia and has perhaps no role in
the transmission of kala-azar. The variant B found
in Royapettah, and also reported from other major
endemic areas like Bihar and West Bengal, is a
morphologically identifiable species B and is
considered a vector species.
P. argentipes is considered to be a species
complex with member species differing in the
lengths of the fourth antennal ascoids (Lewis and
Killick-Kendrick 1973), of the labrums (Lewis
1987) and in cuticular hydrocarbons (Kamhawi
et al. 1992). Recently, Ilango (1998) reported
differences between the specimens of
P. argentipes collected from endemic and non-
endemic areas of visceral leishmaniasis, in which
the relative size of the fourth antennal ascoids
shows character displacement. According to
Brown and Wilson (1956), character
displacement is observed in two closely related
species when their allopatric populations are very
similar and their sympatric populations distinct
in one or more characters. The disparate
characters could be morphological or
behavioural. In this study, the pattern of
distribution and oviposition behaviour of three
variants of P. argentipes suggests that it may
consist of several isomorphic species distributed
across the Indian Subcontinent.
According to Tabachnick and Black
(1995), current species identification using
isoenzyme analysis, DNA probes and PCR
delimits species and provides genetic
relationships. Molecular taxonomy promises to
be an important tool for (1) discrimination of
cryptic members of species complexes, (2)
identification of morphologically similar species
at any life stage, and (3) rapid identification of
small arthropods (eg. mites, sandflies,
Culicoides). Population genetics characterises
genetic variation within and among populations
of a species. Members of species complexes and
morphologically similar species are likely to be
descendents of populations that were once
members of a single species. Studies that examine
gene flow with respect to components of vector
capacity provide insights into vector species
complexes and variation within species.
Hence, molecular taxonomy and
population genetics studies are urgently required
to resolve the taxonomic status of P. argentipes,
to understand the pathogenic transmission,
epidemiology and control of the disease.
Acknow ledgement
I thank the Zoological Survey of India for
support.
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
365
OVIPOS1TION BELIA VIOUR OF THE VISCERAL LEISHMANIASIS VECTOR
Refer
Annandale, N. (1908): Notes on Oriental Diptera. V.
Description of new species of Psychodidae of the
genus Phlebotomus. Rec. Indian Mus., 2: 101-104.
Brown, W.L., Jr. & E.O. Wilson (1956): Character
displacement^?. Zooi, 5:49-64.
Dobzhansky, T., F.J. Ayala, G.L. Stebbins & J.W.
Valentine (1976): Evolution. University of
California, Davis, pp. 572.
Ilango K., V. Dhanada, R. Srinivasan, A.V. Sadanand &
R.P. Lane (1 994): Phlebotomine sandflies (Diptera
: Psychodidae) of Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry,
Southern India, in relation to visceral leishmaniasis.
Annals Trop. Med. Parasit., 88: 413-431.
Ilango, K. (1998): Fine structure of antennal ascoid and
character displacement in Phlebotomus argentipes
sensulato . Abstr. 3rd Symp. Vectors & Vector borne
diseases. Puri, India, pp. 44.
Kamhawi, S., R.P. Lane, M. Cameron, A. Philips,
P. Milligan, & D.H. Molyneux (1992): The
ENCES
cuticular hydrocarbons of Phlebotomus argentipes
(Diptera: Phlebotominae) from field populations in
northern India and Sri Lanka, and their changes
with laboratory colonization. Bull. Ent. Res., 82:
209-212.
Lewis, D.J. & R. Kjllick-Kendrick (1973): Some
phlebotomid sandflies and other Diptera of
Malaysia and Sri Lanka. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med.
Hyg., 67: 4-5.
Lewis, D.J. (1987): Phlebotomine sandflies (Diptera:
Psychodidae) from the Oriental Region. Syst. Ent.,
12: 163-180.
Seccombe, A.K., P.D. Ready &L.M. Huddleston (1993):
A Catalogue of old World Phlebotomid Sandfl ies
(Diptera: Psychodidae, Phlebotominae). Occ. Pap.
Syst. Ent., 8: 1-57.
Tabachnick, W.J. 8c W.C. Black IV (1995): Making a
case for molecular population genetic studies of
arthropod vectors Parasit. Today. 2: 27-29.
366
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(3 ) DEC. 2000
FOOD HABITS AND ACTIVITY PATTERN OF
THE COMMON OTTER LUTRA LUTRA NAIR (F. CUVIER)
AT PICHAVARAM, TAMIL NADU, SOUTH INDIA1
G. Umapathy2
Key words: Common otter, Lutra lutra nair , food habits, activity pattern,
Pichavaram mangrove forests
Food habits and activity pattern of the common otter ( Lutra lutra) were studied in Coleroon and
Uppanar rivers, in Pichavaram mangrove forest, in Tamil Nadu, during December 1991 to March
1992. A total of 2,552 records of diurnal activities were noted through group scan of a population
in freshwater habitat. Two spraints were collected from brackish waters and 1 76 from the adjoining
freshwater habitats. Swimming or moving was the major diurnal activity, followed by resting.
Scat analysis showed that fish was the major food item in the diet, followed by crustaceans.
Introduction
Otters are considered as health indicators
of wetland habitats (Foster-Turley et al. 1990).
The otter population is declining in many
wetlands due to pollution, deforestation and
conversion of wetlands into agricultural and
aquaculture lands (op. cit.). Studies on the
European otter (Lutra lutra) have indicated that
human disturbance is a major factor in the decline
of its population (Joint Otter Group 1977).
Studies on the population and feeding ecology
of Indian otters are very limited (Hussain 1992).
This paper reports some observations on the food
habits of the common otter Lutra lutra nair in
Uppanar and Coleroon rivers, at Pichavaram, on
the east coast of India, in Tamil Nadu, from
December 1991 to March 1992.
Study Area
The study area adjoins the Pichavaram
mangrove forest in South Arcot district, Tamil
Nadu, on the east coast of India. It comprises a
'Accepted January, 1 999
department of Zoology, University of Madras,
Guindy Campus, Chennai 600 025, Tamil Nadu, India.
Present Address: Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology,
W-l 12, Ground Floor, Uppal Road, Hyderabad 500 007,
Andhra Pradesh, India.
c. 5 km stretch of the Coleroon river and 1 5 km
stretch of the Uppanar river (11° 25' N, 74°
47' E). The study area at Coleroon was about
2 km south of Pichavaram village and is called
Block 1. The width of the backwaters at Coleroon
ranged from 250 to 300 m and depth from 2 to
5 m, during the dry season. Both banks were
mostly covered with prawn culture farms and
narrow strips of thick bushes. The site at
Uppanar river covered about 8 km of freshwater
habitat (Block II) and 7 km of estuarine habitat
(Block III) and is to the north of Coleroon river.
Blocks II and III were separated by a check dam,
which formed a small reservoir of fresh water
used for agricultural purposes and which
provided a good habitat for otters. The width of
Uppanar river varied from 1 0 to 15m and depth
from 1 to 5 m. The freshwater habitat (Block II)
had a village ( 1 km stretch), paddy fields (3 km)
and thick bushes (2 km) on its banks’ The
estuarine habitat (Block III) was covered with
paddy fields (2 km), prawn farm (2 km), thorny
bushes (2 km) and open land (2 km). The
Uppanar river mouth was occupied by an
extensive stretch of mangrove forest.
Material and Methods
The otters occurring in the study area were
identified as Lutra lutra nair (Krishnan 1977).
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
367
FOOD HABITS AND A CTIVITYPA TTERN OF THE COMMON OTTER
They were located by frequent surveys during
early hours. A total of 176 fresh spraints (less
than a week old) were collected from these
localities. These were washed in a fine sieve; the
various components were separated and broadly
identified as fish, crab, prawn, insect and others.
The percentage frequency of the various prey
items was collectively calculated for all spraints,
for each block. Time spent by otters on different
activities was estimated by group scan (Altmann
1974), at intervals of 10 minutes, only from Block
II since visibility in other areas was poor. The
activities were categorized into feeding, resting,
moving or swimming, playing and others. Success
rates of foraging dives were also estimated. All
observations were made from dawn to dusk, for
six days each month, from December 1991 to
March 1992. Since the animals were shy and
aquatic, it was difficult to follow diem continuously,
but an average of 4 to 5 hrs of observation was
possible in a day (range 2 to 8 hrs). The number
recorded per scan varied from 3 to 6.
Percent time spent on an activity was
calculated for each day from: T =n x 100 IN
where
T^ — % time spent on activity a
na — number of records with activity a and
N — total number of records for the day
An average of these percentages over the
study period was used as an estimate of the time
spent on each activity.
Results and Discussion
A total of 2,552 records of diurnal activities
were made in 24 days. Moving or swimming was
the major activity, taking 42.84% of the day time
(range 30.1% to 53,7%). Resting was second,
taking 30.87% of the day time (range 26.4% to
34.8%), while feeding was 20.3% (range 15.7%
to 24.3%). Playing and other activities
constituted 3.79% and 2.14% respectively.
Fish was the most common food item in
the spraints collected in Block I (71.5%) and
Block III (68.2%), and second most common in
Block II (36.4%) (Table 1). Crustaceans (crabs
and prawns) were common in the spraints in
Block I and II, while crabs were most common
in Block II (45.5%). 3% to 12% insects were
found in the spraints. Whether the frequency of
occurrence of various food items in otter spraints
can be interpreted as the proportion of food intake
is confounded by many factors, such as
differences in prey size and proportion of
indigestibility (Macdonald and Mason 1986).
Fish is a major food item of the European
otter Lutra lutra (Kruuk etal. 1987), and smooth
Indian otter Lutra perspicillata (Hussain 1992).
Table 1
PERCENTAGE OCCURRENCE OF DIFFERENT FOOD
ITEMS IN OTTER SPRAINTS COLLECTED IN THE
PICHAVARAM AREA, EAST COAST OF TAMIL NADU
Food item Percentage occurrence of food items
Block I Block II Block III
Fish
71.54
36.36
68.18
Crab
14.30
45.45
9.10
Prawn
7.15
12.50
13.62
Insect
3.44
5.70
9.10
Others
3.57
0.00
0.00
Number of spraints
analysed
80.00
32.00
64!00
In the former species, some habitat differences
in the food preference were seen, with the
crustaceans forming the main food item
(Macdonald and Mason 1987).
Fifty-four feeding dives were recorded, of
which 39 dives (72.0%) were successful. Of the
successful dives, otters captured fish on 22
occasions (56.4%), crabs on 8 (20.5%), prawn
once (2.5 %) and unidentified items on eight
occasions (20.5%). This observation on feeding
also indicates the dominance of fish in the diet.
The differences between direct observation of
feeding and spraint analysis in the Block II
population, may be due to the otter feeding on
smaller prey (mostly crabs) under water.
368
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3) DEC. 2000
FOOD HABITS AND A CTIVITYPA TTERN OF THE COMMON OTTER
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Prof. G. Durairaj,
Department of Zoology, University of Madras
for guidance and encouragement. I thank
Refer
Altmann, J. (1974): Observational study of behaviour:
sampling methods. Behaviour 49: 227-267.
Foster-Turley, P., S. Macdonald & C. Mason (Eds.)
( 1 990): Otters. Action plan for their conservation.
IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, 126 pp.
Hussain, S.A. (1992): The wild otters of the Chambal.
Sanctuary, Asia XII, No. 5: 24-31.
Joint Otter Group (1997): Otters. 1977. Nature
Conservancy Council/Society for the Promotion of
Dr. Ajith Kumar, Salim Ali Centre for
Ornithology and Natural History, Coimbatore,
for going through an earlier version of the draft
and the Tamil Nadu State Forest Department
for financial assistance.
ENCES
Nature Conservation, London, 96 pp.
Krishnan, M. (1977): Indian Wildlife. Department of
Tourism, Government of India.
Kruuk, H., J.W.H. Conroy & A. Moorhouse (1987):
Seasonal reproduction mortality and food of otters
( Lutra lutra ) in Shetland. J. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.
58: 263-278.
Macdonald, S.M. & C.F. Mason (1986): Otter: Ecology
and Conservation, Camb. Univ. Press, Cambridge.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC 2000
369
FEEDING POTENTIAL OF CASSIDA CIRCUMDATA HERB ST (CHRYSOMELID AE :
COLEOPTERA) ON IPOMOEA REPTANS (LINN.) (CONVOLVULACEAE)1
M. John George3 and Ipe M. Ipe2
( With one text-figure )
Key words: Cassida circumdata , Coleoptera, Ipomoea reptans, Convolvulaceae
The tortoise beetle Cassida circumdata Herbst feeds on the aquatic plant Ipomoea reptans (Linn.)
(Family: Convolvulaceae), which grows profusely in the tropical wetlands. This plant species
was found invading the open water area and changing the proportion of habitats available for
aquatic birds and fishes. The different larval instars and adults of the tortoise beetle were noticed
feeding on the leaves and tender stems of Ipomoea reptans, one of the abundant aquatic plants in
Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan, which is among the major protected wetlands in
India.
To assess the impact of Cassida circumdata on its main host plant I. reptans , consumption of the
leaves in terms of area fed by different larval and adult stages were studied under laboratory
conditions (30 ±2 °C and 50-70% relative humidity). The first to fifth instar larvae and adult
differed widely in their consumption of host plant leaves. The area consumed was in the order 1 st
<2nd <3rd <4th <5th instars > adult. Significant correlation could be obtained between the growth
of the larvae and their food consumption. The different rates of food consumption indicate the
varying energy requirements of the various larval stages of the beetle.
Introduction
Recently, much attention has been given
to the herbivore-plant relationship, with
reference to its ecological and evolutionary
impacts (Denno and McClure 1983). Such
studies demand a knowledge of the actual
consumption of the host plant parts by the
herbivore and its growth rate. The quantitative
assessment of consumption of host plants by its
pest may help us to assess the impact of the pest
on the growth of the plant and thereby the
possible use of that pest as an agent of biological
control.
The tortoise beetle Cassida circumdata
Herbst feeds on the aquatic plant Ipomoea
reptans (Linn.), which grows profusely in
tropical wetlands. About 91 species of wetland
macrophytes have been identified from the
'Accepted July, 1999
2School of Entomology, St. John’s College,
Agra 282 002, Uttar Pradesh, India.
?Present Address: Mar Thoma College for Women,
Perumbavoor, Emakulam 683 542, Kerala, India.
Keoladeo National Park of which the most
dominant species is a grass, Paspalum distichum ,
that covers a major part of the aquatic area. The
rest is mostly covered with Ipomoea reptans , an
important amphibious herb. Ipomoea reptans
floats in water, usually appears as a trailing herb
and changes the proportion of the habitat
available for aquatic birds and fishes (Ali and
Vijayan 1986). In the Park, I. reptans remains
in a dormant stage during winter (December-
February).
In summer (April- June), as the water level
drops and the stem makes contact with the
ground, it produces leaves in large numbers.
After monsoon and when the level of water rises,
I. reptans spreads and attains maximum growth.
This paper reports the result of the study carried
out in the field and under laboratory conditions,
to determine the feeding potential of
C. circumdata.
The life-cycle of C. circumdata includes
5 larval stages and a pupal stage. The eggs were
laid on the ventral side of I. reptans leaves. Under
370
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
FEEDING POTENTIAL OFCASSIDA CIRCUMDATA
laboratory conditions (30 ±2 °C), the eggs
hatched within 4 days. The duration of the 5
larval instars was 2, 1-2, 2, 2 and 4 days
respectively. The pupal stage lasted for 4 days.
Study area
The present study was carried out in the
well-known protected wetland, the Keoladeo
National Park, Bharatpur (27° 7.6' to 27° 12.2'
N and 77° 29.5' to 77° 33.9' E), Rajasthan, India.
Methodology
Both sexes were almost alike, the male
being slightly smaller than the female. To study
the feeding and oviposition, experiments were
earned out in plastic containers (height = 8 cm
and diameter = 3 cm) with screw top having holes
for ventilation. Discs of filter paper were placed
at the bottom of the containers to absorb excess
moisture and facilitate cleaning. Mating pairs
were collected from the field and kept in these
containers. The leaf-area fed by the adult and
the eggs laid after 24 hrs were recorded. The
adults, when kept in containers laid eggs on the
leaves of I. reptans, and the eggs hatched within
4 days.
Newly emerged larvae were placed one in
each container and provided with fresh leaves of
I. reptans daily. The body length and breadth
were measured every 24 hrs using a compound
microscope with a calibrated ocular micrometer.
When fresh leaves were freely available, the
larvae and adults fed upon the fresh area. The
leaf area consumed and removed at one meal (leaf
area fed at a stretch) was measured by placing
the leaf on graph paper and tracing the leaf area
fed, and then counting the squares of the leaf
area fed, as suggested by Simmonds (1949). As
the early instars fed very little and made circular
holes, the radius of the circular path fed was
measured with graph paper and by a calibrated,
ocular micrometer. To estimate the quantity of
food consumed by the adult and grub of Lema
lacordairei (Chrysomelidae), Visalakshi and
Nair (1987) used similar methods.
Along with the experimental studies in the
laboratory, an attempt was made to quantify the
feeding impact of different instars of the beetle
on the host plant. This was carried out by
collecting the plant and different stages of the
beetles from randomly placed quadrats of 100 x
100 sq. cm. Collections were made from 6 study
plots. Once the quadrat was placed, all the leaves
above water were plucked and transferred into
plastic bags (harvest method). The adults that
flew off on being disturbed were also counted.
In the laboratory, all the leaves were carefully
examined and the different instars and adults
counted. The leaf area was measured using the
same method as above. The leaf biomass was
quantified using an electrical monopan balance
of sensitivity 0.1 mg. The samples were taken
once in seven days and monthly averages were
calculated.
Results and discussion
Lab experiment: The average leaf area of
Ipomoea reptans consumed and the average
growth (length and breadth) of the larvae of
Cassida circumdata for each day are summarized
in Table 1. The maximum leaf area was
consumed on the eighth day by the 5th instar
larva (59.33 sq. mm). The maximum increase
in the larval stage was noted on the seventh and
eighth day. On the ninth day, the larvae slowly
decreased their rate of feeding and entered
pupation. The 5th instar larva fed about
101.16 sq. mm leaf area within 3 days. The
maximum area was fed upon by the two day old
5th instar larva. This study showed that the 5th
instar larvae can consume almost 4 times more
than the 4th instar and about 100 times more
than the 1st instar (Table 1).
A single larva from the 1st through the
5th instar consumed about 145.95 sq. mm leaf
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
371
FEEDING POTENTIAL OFC ASSIDA CIRCUMDATA
Table 1
FOOD CONSUMPTION AND GROWTH OF THE LARVAE OF C. CIRCUMDATA REARED ON /. REPTANS
IN THE LABORATORY (30±2°C)
Days
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Stage (instar)
1st
2nd
3rd
3rd
4th
4th
5th
5th
5th
Pupa
Pupa
Increase in length (mm)
0.15
0.28
0.3
0.2
0.45
0.45
0.75
0.58
0.18
-0.08
0
Increase in breadth (mm)
0.08
0.17
0.15
0.13
0.37
0.17
0.38
0.55
0
0
0
Area fed (sq. mm)
1.86
5.01
4.68
9.83
9.65
16.79
30.25
59.33
11.58
0
0
area of I. reptans within 9 days (Table 1). The
average leaf area collected during July-October
was 17.55 sq. cm. The study showed that two
larvae from the 1 st instar through 5th instar can
completely eat and skeletonise a single leaf.
To study the feeding behaviour of the
beetle, the host plant leaves were observed when
there was less attack. Of the total holes fed and
made by the larvae and the adult (N 1 5,265
holes) 95.5% of the holes indicated only one
feeding. This indicates that the larvae and adults
preferred to feed on fresh area when the host plant
leaves were plentiful.
The leaf area fed and removed at one meal
(in a stretch) by each instar larva and adult are
summarized in Table 2. The result showed that
the 5 th instar larvae consumed greater leaf area
at a single meal and the first instar the least.
The adult C. circumdata pair under
captivity (N=15) fed on 56.81 ±12.53 sq. mm
leaves and laid 12.6 ±6.1 eggs within 24 hrs.
The mating pairs fed 17.1 ±4.8 times within
24 hrs. The area fed upon by the mating pairs
was less compared to the 5th instar larva, as more
time was utilized for mating and laying eggs.
No significant correlation was noticed between
the area fed and the number of eggs laid.
Simmonds (1949) assessed the leaf area
consumed each day by the larvae of Physonota
alutacea (Cassidinae). The leaf area consumption
was seen to increase with the growth of the larvae
each day, the maximum consumption of leaf area
Table 2
LEAF AREA OF I. REPTANS CONSUMED (SQ. MM) BY
THE LARVAE AND ADULT C. CIRCUMDA TA
AT 30 ±2°C (N=80)
1 st instar
0.21 ±0.13
2nd instar
0.35 ±0.19
3rd instar
0.80 ±0.37
4th instar
1.86 ±0.82
5th instar
5.32 ±3.41
Adult
3.77 ±1.72
was noted on the 16th day. In Aspidomorpha
miliaris, the adult consumed seven times more
leaf area than the 5th instar (Manjunatha et al.
1987). Bombyx mori and Protoparce sexta, both
lepidopterous leaf feeders, eat about 97% of their
total intake during the last two instars and about
99% during the last three instars respectively. In
Bombyx mori , it was noticed that the efficiency
of storage of metabolizable energy increases with
age, reaching its peak in the 5th instar. The large
amount of energy stored during 5th instar is, of
course, needed to support the non-feeding pupa
and adult (Waldbauer, 1968).
Field experiments: Field observations
revealed that the beetle appears in the study area
during March (mean min. temp. = 19 °C). The
host plant was available only along the dykes.
The population of C. circumdata remained
almost constant during the peak summer months.
With the onset of monsoon and the release of
water from Ajanbund, an inundation reservoir
situated 0.5 km south of the Park, the plant spread
372
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC 2000
FEEDING POTENTIAL OFC ASSIDA CIRCUMDATA
over the area by vegetative reproduction. There
is spatial variation in the abundance of this plant
in the Park. By this time, the beetle had settled
in different areas. The adults mainly concentrated
in certain areas, fed and laid eggs. There was
wide fluctuation in the population of different
stages of the beetle among the different study
plots. After laying eggs, the adults move to other
less infected areas. The adult beetles prefer to
lay eggs on the underside of fresh young leaves.
Eggs were never laid on skeletonised leaves, to
ensure enough food for the emerging larva.
The average maximum number of different
stages of the beetle was noted during September
(Fig. 1 ). The leaf area of the host plant was found
following the same trend as that of the beetle.
Thus, a significant positive correlation was
obtained between biomass and leaf area of the
plant with the population of the beetle (r = 0.821,
p - 0.001; r - 0.8472, p = 0.0001, n = 60).
It was observed that the host plant
compensated for the leaf area fed upon by the
larval and adult C. circumdata by producing
larger leaves. Leaves with greater surface area
were noticed in August and September during
1985, when the population of the beetle was at
its peak (Fig. 1). But in a later study during 1986-
87, a similar response of the host plant could not
be observed due to low population of the beetle
(George 1988). The maximum population (468/
sq. m) and leaf area (17.8 sq. mm) during 1986,
was noticed in September.
Kolodny-Hirsch and Harrison (1982)
conducted field and field cage studies to compare
larval injury by the tobacco bud worm, Heliothis
virescens and corn ear worm, Heliothis zea
(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Their observations
showed that the plant compensated for leafless by
increasing the laminal area of the damaged leaves.
The population of C. circumdata , in the
Park, reached a peak in September, and as a result
the leaf area and biomass declined. In the end,
only leaf skeletons remained in the infested areas.
Thus, leaf biomass became zero towards the
onset of winter. In winter, both the plant and its
pest remained dormant. The beetles were found
hibernating, in the Park, on terrestrial plants,
namely Salvadora persica, albeit in small
numbers (George 1988). This formed the breeding
stock for the next population during February-
March, and by this time the host plant also starts
producing smaller leaves. Thus, the interrelated
life-cycles of the host and pest continue.
The study unravels a unique relationship
between the plant and the beetle. Though the
beetle controls the biomass of the host plant, it
POPULATION /AREA
10000 §
1000
100 =
□ LEAF AREA
TOTAL
POPULATION
Fig. 1: Leaf area (sq. mm) of I. reptans and population of C. circumdata
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
373
FEEDING POTENTIAL OF CAS SI DA CIRCUMDATA
does not completely destroy them, thereby
ensuring its own survival. The most important
barriers which prevent the beetle from destroying
the plant entirely are the ability of the plant to
survive under water and low ambient tempera-
tures (average minimum temp, in December-
February 8 °C).
Acknowledgements
This paper is an outcome of the Keoladeo
National Park Ecology Project of the BNHS,
Refer
Ali, S. & V.S. Vijayan (1986): Keoladeo National Park
Ecological Study Summary Report, 1980-85. Bombay
Natural History Society, Bombay, pp 54.
Denno, R.F. & M.S. McClure (1983): Variable plants and
Herbivores in Natural and Management Systems.
Academic Press, Inc., London, pp 717.
George, M.J. (1988): Bioecology and population dynamics
of Tortoise beetle Cassida circumdata Herbst
(Chrysomelidae : Cassidinae) in Keoladeo National
Park, Bharatpur. Ph.D. Thesis submitted to the Agra
University, Agra.
Kolodny-Hirch, D.M. & F.P. Harrison (1982):
Comparative damage and leaf area consumption by
the Tobacco bud worm and Corn ear worm on
Maryland Tobacco. Econ. Entomol. 75(2 ): 168-
196.
sponsored by the US Fish and Wildlife Service
through the Ministry of Environment and
Forests, Govt, of India. Encouragement received
from Mr. J.C. Daniel, Hon. Secretary, BNHS and
Dr. V.S. Vijayan, Director, SACON, Coimbatore
is acknowledged. We also thank Dr. N.K.
Ramachandran, Wildlife Institute of India, for
criticism and suggestions, and Dr. C.R.
Ajithkumar, Principal Investigator, Mr. K. Raju
Thomas and Mr. C.R. Biju, Research Scholars,
BNHS Research Station, Kalady, Kerala, for
their help.
• N C E S
Manjunatha, M., G.T.T. Raju, D.N.R. Reddy & S.K. Dutta
(1987): Studies on the biology of Aspidomorpha
miliaris F. (Cassididae : Coleoptera) on three species
of Ipomoea and leaf area consumption studies on
Ipomoea angulata Lamk. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
84(3): 704-708.
Simmonds, F.J. (1949): Insects attacking Cordia
macrostachya (Jacq) Roem. & Schult. in the West
Indies, I. Physonota alutacea Boh (Coleoptera :
Cassidinae). Repr. from Can. Entomol. Vol. 8 1 , No. 8.
Visalakshi, A. & M.R.G.K. Nair ( 1 987): Biology of Lema
lacordairei Baly. (Coleoptera : Chrysomelidae :
Criocerinae) a pest of Yam Dioscorea alata in Kerala.
Entomon. 3(1): 129-131.
Waldbauer, G.P. ( 1 968): The consumption and utilisation
of food by insects. Adv. Insect. Physiol. 5: 229-288.
■ ■
374
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
HABITAT PREFERENCES AND DISTRIBUTIONAL STATUS OF
SOME FOREST BIRDS IN ANDAMAN ISLANDS'
K. Yoganand2,3 and Priya Davidar* 2
Key words: Habitat preferences, distributional status, forest birds, Andaman Islands, India
The habitat preferences of 30 species of forest birds were studied in Baratang Island in the
Andamans, India. The relationship between habitat preferences and large-scale patterns, such as
biogeographical distribution of each species on the continent of Asia and distributional status
within the Andaman Islands was analysed. The birds fell into five categories, those found
predominantly in only one habitat type, evergreen or deciduous forest, and those which used a
broader range of habitats, which were classified on the basis of their relative occurrence in each
habitat type as semi-evergreen, moist deciduous or generalist species. The habitat preferences of
these 30 species showed no association with either the biogeographical distribution or with status,
suggesting that large-scale distributional patterns are not related to habitat preferences.
Introduction
Within a geographical area, species are not
evenly distributed across all available habitats,
but tend to use some habitats more than others.
A species is found with greatest frequency and
abundance in the habitats to which it is best
adapted (Crowell 1962). These preferences might
change across geographical areas and over
seasons. Alteration and destruction of habitats
by humans can have a drastic effect on some
species, while others adapt to the modified
habitat. Therefore, data on the habitat
requirements of a species could be useful for
predicting the effects of habitat alteration due to
humans on natural communities.
Habitat preference of a species might limit
its dispersal and subsequent colonisation. It is
presumed that species restricted to a habitat
would be relatively infrequent in a geographical
area and its geographical range would be
restricted. Its presence depends on the occurrence
of the specific habitat in that area. On the other
'Accepted February, 2000
2Salim Ali School of Ecology and Environmental Sciences
Pondicherry University, Pondicherry 605 014, India.
Tresent address: Wildlife Institute of India,
P.O. Box 1 8, Chandrabani, Dehra Dun 248 001 ,
Uttaranchal, India.
hand, generalist species would be common,
occurring over a large area (Brown 1984).
This study examines the habitat
preferences of 30 species of forest birds on
Baratang Island, Andamans, India, and whether
there is any relationship between their habitat
selection at the local level with broad
geographical patterns, such as distribution on the
continental mainland and overall status in the
Andamans.
Study area
The Andamans are a part of the Andaman
and Nicobar Islands, comprising of more than
300 islands in the Bay of Bengal. They extend
from southwestern Myanmar to northwestern
Sumatra, lying between 6° 45' and 13° 41' N.
They are postulated to be a part of the Arakan
Yoma mountain range of Myanmar, which lies
submerged. They are considered true oceanic
islands as they were never connected to the Asian
continent during the Pleistocene glaciation.
Maximum overwater colonisation possibly
occurred before the Andaman Sea expanded
(Ripley and Beehler 1989, Halde pers. comm.).
The Andaman group consists of four large
islands, North, Middle, Baratang and South
Andaman Islands, forming a super island of over
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
375
HABITA T PREFERENCES AND DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN ANDAMANS
5,000 sq. km with archipelagoes and isolated
islands surrounding it. The climate is tropical
and oceanic with about 3,000 mm annual rainfall
received from both the southwest and northeast
monsoons. The dry season extends from February
to May.
This study was conducted on Baratang
Island, which lies between the Middle and South
Andaman Islands. Baratang has been selectively
logged and some areas clear felled since the early
20th century; selective logging continues in parts
of this island. More than 75% of the sites
sampled on Baratang had been selectively
logged.
Of the forest types described (Champion
and Seth 1 968), the common and dominant forms
that were considered as distinct habitat types in
this study are:
1. Evergreen forest: These are multi-storied
climax forest formations that occur mostly
on low alluvial land or on moist loamy
hillsides, with representative trees such as
Dipterocarpus spp., Canarium manii ,
Artocarpus sp., Pometia pinnata.
2 . Semi-evergreen forest: Mainly confined to
valleys and slopes, containing both
evergreen and deciduous trees. Some tree
species are Dipterocarpus alatus ,
Pterygota alata, Albizia chinensis,
Bombax insigne , Artocarpus lakoocha and
Pterocymbium tinctorium.
3. Deciduous forest: Forests of lower stature
growing on lower hills and in drier areas.
Common species are Pterocarpus
dalbergioides, Terminalia bialata ,
Dalbergia spp., Pterocymbium tinctorium ,
Albizia spp. and Tetrameles nudiflora.
The evergreen and deciduous forests are
structurally different from each other, especially
during the dry season when the deciduous trees
lose their leaves. This study was conducted
during the dry season (February, March) of
1993.
Methods
The abundance and habitat use patterns of
30 species of forest birds were recorded in
Baratang Island. Approximately half the forested
area of Baratang is deciduous and the rest semi-
evergreen and evergreen forest. Transects of
one km length were laid in each forest type, the
number varying with the size of each habitat type.
There were 3 transects in evergreen forest, 4 in
semi-evergreen forest and 6 in deciduous forest.
The transects were walked in the mornings
between 0700 and 1000 hrs, and all birds seen
and heard were recorded. The identification was
based on Ali and Ripley (1987).
To find the habitat preference of a species,
the mean number of individuals recorded per km
of transect in each habitat was calculated. This
eliminates error due to unequal sampling among
habitats. Comparison of this abundance index
across different habitats gives the relative habitat
occurrence of a species (Table 1). Species that
were observed with a frequency of more than 60%
in at least one habitat are considered common
species and are included in the analyses.
From the relative occurrence values,
species are placed in the following five
categories:
1. Evergreen forest species: Found
predominantly in the evergreen forest and
less frequently in the semi-evergreen forest.
2. Semi-evergreen forest species: Found in
equal proportion in evergreen and semi-
evergreen forest, rarely in deciduous forest.
3. Deciduous forest species: Recorded
predominantly in deciduous forest and
infrequently in other forest types.
4. Moist deciduous species: Recorded in
approximately equal proportion in deciduous
and semi-evergreen forests, but rarely in
evergreen forest.
5. Generalist species: Found in equal
proportion in the evergreen and deciduous
376
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
HABITAT PREFERENCES AND DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN ANDAMANS
Table 1
RELATIVE OCCURRENCES OF BIRDS IN VARIOUS HABITAT TYPES ON BARATANG ISLAND
Species
No. of birds recorded
Evergreen
Relative occurrence in each
habitat type (%)
Semi-evergreen
Deciduous
Habitat
preference
Dryocopus hodgei
8
31
69
0
Semi-evergreen
Dendrocopus macei
4
0
0
100
Deciduous
Centropus andamanensis
7
25
0
75
Deciduous
Loriculus vernalis
8
44
56
0
Semi-evergreen
Psittacula eupatria
6
40
60
0
Semi -evergreen
Psittacula alexandri
12
0
23
77
Deciduous
Psittacula longicauda
27
49
44
7
Semi-evergreen
Columba palumboides
4
100
0
0
Evergreen
Ducula aenea
68
49
41
10
Semi-evergreen
Macropygia rujipennis
6
73
27
0
Evergreen
Chalcophaps indica
5
67
33
0
Semi-evergreen
Treron pompadora
10
84
16
0
Evergreen
Irena puella
11
53
47
0
Semi-evergreen
Dendrocitta bayleyi
9
17
50
33
Moist deciduous
Oriolus chinensis
20
25
12
63
Deciduous
Coracina macei
7
25
0
75
Deciduous
Pericrocotus cinnamomeus
20
0
65
35
Moist deciduous
Pericrocotus flammeus
20
62
19
19
Semi-evergreen
Dicrurus andamanensis
14
0
29
71
Deciduous
Dicrurus paradiseus
19
51
39
10
Semi-evergreen
Hypothymis azurea
6
44
33
22
Semi-evergreen
Copsychus saularis
8
22
0
78
Deciduous
Aplonis panayensis
44
0
62
38
Moist deciduous
Sturnus erythropygius
14
0
46
54
Moist deciduous
Gracula religiosa
23
93
7
0
Evergreen
Pycnonotus atriceps
15
54
14
32
Generalist
Pycnonotus jocosus
18
0
16
84
Deciduous
Zosterops palpebrosus
10
31
23
46
Generalist
Dicaeum concolor
11
29
21
50
Generalist
Nectarinia jugularis
9
33
25
42
Generalist
forests, less commonly in the semi-evergreen
forest.
The biogeographic distributional ranges of
all breeding species present in the Andaman
Islands are given in Ripley and Beehler (1989).
We ranked each of our study species based on
their presence in the four biogeographic regions,
with which the Andaman birds have close
affinities. Species endemic to the Andaman and
Nicobar Is. are given a rank of 1 and for others,
the number of regions in which the species is
distributed are added to calculate a value. For
example, if a species is found in Myanmar,
Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula and in South
India, it receives a value of 4.
The rank of each species indicative of its
distributional status is taken from Davidar et al.
(1996). The rank of a species is a composite of
its abundance rank, based on the total number
recorded, and its distributional rank based on the
number of islands on which it was recorded, out
of the 45 islands surveyed in the Andamans
(Davidar et al. 1996).
Rank correlation, contingency table and
correspondence analyses were performed to
detect any relationship between biogeographic
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
377
HABITA T PREFERENCES AND DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN ANDAMANS
distributions, status within Andamans and
habitat preferences.
Results
The habitat preferences of the 30 species
indicate that they occupy a range of habitats, from
strictly evergreen or deciduous forest to all these
habitats, but in different proportions. Of the 30
species, 12 are habitat specialists, four being
limited to evergreen forest, and eight to
predominantly deciduous forest. The rest are
more broadly distributed; 10 species being
classified as semi-evergreen, 4 as moist deciduous
and four as habitat generalists (Table 1).
Table 2 provides information on habitat
preferences of the species, their biogeographic
distributional range and rank indicative of status.
Only the relationship between biogeographic range
and status is significant (Kendall’s tb = 0.4305,
p<0.01). This suggests that species with a broad
biogeographical distribution are also more
common and widely distributed in the Andaman
Islands. The habitat preference of species is not
significantly related to either biogeographical range
or status within Andaman Islands.
Discussion
This study on 30 species of forest birds in
Baratang Island indicates that there is a diversity
of habitat preference among these species.
Approximately half the species studied preferred
wet forest, and the rest drier forest. This suggests
that the avifauna might fall into two broad
categories, those with affinities to wet
biogeographic zones on the mainland, and the
others of a more deciduous origin. Pigeons and
parakeets mostly preferred wet forests in the
Andaman Islands, whereas in drier forests no
such phylogenetic pattern could be seen.
The results show that there is no relationship
between habitat preferences and biogeographic
Table 2
HABITAT PREFERENCES, BIOGEOGRAPHIC
DISTRIBUTIONS AND RANKING ON RARITY/
COMMONNESS SCALE OF 30 SPECIES OF FOREST
BIRDS IN THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS
Species
Habitat
preference
No. of
biogeographic
regions 1
Status
rank 2
Columba palumboides
E
1
2
Macropygia rufipennis
E
1
3
Treron pompadora
E
2
6
Gracula religiosa
E
4
6
Dendrocopus macei
D
2
5
Centropus
andamanensis
D
1
5
Psittacula alexandri
D
2
6
Oriolus chinensis
D
2
9
Coracina macei
D
3
5
Dicrurus andamanensis
D
1
5
Copsychus saularis
D
4
7
Pycnonotus jocosus
D
3
10
Dry o copus hodgei
S
1
4
Loriculus vernalis
S
3
7
Psittacula eupatria
S
2
5
Psittacula longicauda
S
2
6
Ducula aenea
S
4
9
Chalcophaps indica
S
4
5
Irena puella
S
4
9
Pericrocotus flammeus
s
4
•4
Dicrurus paradiseus
s
4
9
Hypothymis azurea
s
4
7
Dendrocitta bayleyi
M
1
2
Pericrocotus
cinnamomeus
M
4
9
Aplonis panayensis
M
3
7
Sturnus erythropygius
M
1
7
Pycnonotus atriceps
G
3
2
Zosterops palpebrosus
G
4
9
Dicaeum concolor
G
4
7
Nectarinia jugularis
G
3
10
E = Evergreen, D = Deciduous, S = Semi -evergreen,
M = Moist deciduous, G = Generalist.
'Ripley and Beehler (1 989): 1 - endemic to 4 = distributed on
four biogeographic regions on the continent
:Davidar et al. (1996): 1 = rare to 10 = very common
distributions. Species with narrow habitat use
patterns did not correspondingly have narrow
distributional range on the continent. Their
presence in the Andamans depends, perhaps, on
their ability to colonise overwater and not to being
378
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
HABIT A T PREFERENCES AND DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN ANDAMANS
generalised or specialised in habitat use. Ripley
and Beehler (1989), in fact, found that there is a
disproportionate richness of some phylogenetically
related species in the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, and weak dispersers like the passerines
are poorly represented.
There is also no relationship between
habitat preferences and overall status of species
within the Andamans. This shows that species
with narrow habitat use patterns are not
necessarily uncommon and vice versa. However,
species that preferred evergreen forests occurred
as rare to moderately common, but did not occur
very commonly (maximum status rank 6),
whereas species that preferred deciduous forests
occurred as moderate to highly common and were
never rare (minimum status rank 5). Species with
broader habitat preferences generally occurred
commonly (status rank above 4, except the
Andaman tree pie Dendrocitta bayleyi and black-
headed bulbul Pycnonotus atriceps that occurred
only on large islands and were therefore ranked
rare). The habitat generalists that use wet and
dry forests equally, like the small sized Zosterops
palpebrosus , Dicaeum concolor, and Nectarinia
jugularis, occurred commonly and have wide
biogeographical ranges.
Endemic species did not show any
relationship between habitat preference and
status. Species like Columba palumboides and
Macropygia rufipennis were evergreen
specialists; Dicrurus andamanensis and
Centropus andamanensis were deciduous
specialists. Three other endemics used a wider
variety of habitats, but none of them were
generalist. Similarly, some endemics were
relatively rare, e.g., Columba palumboides and
Dendrocitta bayleyi , but others like Sturnus
erythropygius and Centropus andamanensis were
common. However, none of the endemics were
very common (median status rank 4). This lack
of relationship between habitat preference and
status does not conform to the theory that species
of wider habitat use are more common than those
that are restricted in habitat use (Brown 1984).
Lawton (1993) drawing upon empirical data from
several studies also found great variation in the
conformity to the hypothesis, which predicts a
positive correlation between niche breadth, range
size and abundance.
Biogeographic distribution and status of
species in the Andamans are significantly
positively correlated, suggesting that more
common species on the island also have a broader
distribution on the continent. This pattern does
not contradict the general theory on relationship
between distribution and abundance (Brown
1984, Lawton 1993) as well as the null model
{sensu Connor and Simberloff 1979), which
proposes that a common species on the continent
is more likely to be present in the random subset
that colonises an island.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by a grant from
the Ministere de l’Environnement, France. We
thank the French Institute of Pondicherry for
facilities and logistical support. We thank the
former Director, Dr. J. Pouchepadass. We also
thank the Accounts office and Cartographic
Department staff. Dr. J. M. Thiollay provided
literature and guidance in the field; the Forest
Department of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands
for permitting this study, the Chief Wildlife
Warden, Mr. A.K. Wahal, the DFO of Baratang
and forest staff are also thanked for facilities and
field support.
References
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Handbook of the Birds of University Press, New Delhi.
India and Pakistan, Compact 2nd Edn. Oxford Brown, J.H. (1984): On the relationship between
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC 2000
379
HABITAT PREFERENCES AND DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN ANDAMANS
abundance and distribution of species. Am. Nat. 124
(2): 255-279.
Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968): A Revised Survey of
the Forest types of India. Govt, of India Press, New
Delhi.
Connor, E.F. & D. Simberloff (1979): The assembly of
species communities: chance or competition? Ecology
60: 1132-1 140.
Crowell, K.L. (1 962): Reduced interspecific competition
among birds of Bermuda. Ecology 43 : 75-88.
Davidar, P., T.R.K. Yoganand, T. Ganesh & N. Joshi
(1996): An assessment of common and rare forest bird
species of the Andaman Islands. Forktail 12: 1 35-142.
Lawton, J.H. (1993): Range, population abundance and
conservation. Tree 8 (1 1):409-4\3.
Ripley, S.D. & B.M. Beehler (1989): Omithogeographic
affinities of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
J. Biogeography 16: 323-332.
380
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
FORAGING BEHAVIOUR OF CARPENTER BEES,
GENUS XYLOCOPA : XYLOCOPIDAE : HYMENOPTERA,
AND THE POLLINATION OF SOME INDIAN PLANTS1
Aluri Jacob Solomon Raju and C. Subba Reddi2
Key words: Foraging behaviour, pollination, carpenter bees, Xylocopa latipes, X. pubescens
Carpenter bees, or species of Xylocopa, are prominent members of the Indian bee fauna. They
are found throughout the year, foraging in daylight and rarely through the moonlit hours. Some
plant species are adapted specifically to pollination mediated by nectar-seeking carpenter bees.
Such flowers protect the nectar chamber against piercing. Some offer pollen from poricidal anthers
as the only reward. By their flower-foraging behaviour, carpenter bees provide an excellent service
to the plants that they pollinate, especially obligate outcrossers like Gmelina and Cochlospermum.
The different types of foraging behaviour exhibited and the role played by carpenter bees in the
pollination of various plant species occurring in Visakhapatnam, Coringa and Giddalur in Andhra
Pradesh are discussed.
Introduction
Large carpenter bees of the cosmopolitan
genus Xylocopa (Family Xylocopidae,
Hymenoptera) are the most prominent members
of the Indian bee fauna. They are usually black
on the abdomen and variously coloured in the
thoracic region. They nest in soft dead wood of
various plant species. Male and female vary in
size, and generally both have long tongues. They
feed on the flowers of various plant species
blooming at different times of the year. Their
foraging activity is usually limited to daylight
hours, but some extend their activity into moonlit
hours as well (Maxwell-Lefroy and Howlett
1971). The male carpenter bees collect only
nectar, while the females gather pollen and nectar
to provision brood cells. Both have a high energy
expenditure when foraging (Chappel 1982) due
to their large mass, and this expenditure must
be balanced by energy obtained from nectar sugar.
The bees can carry quantities of nectar and
pollen that are large, relative to the amounts
usually available in flowers, and thus they visit
many flowers or plants during a foraging trip.
'Accepted August, 1999
2Department of Environmental Sciences,
Andhra University, Visakhapatnam 530 003,
Andhra Pradesh, India.
While probing the flowers for pollen or nectar,
the bees usually contact stigmas and anthers, and
thereby pollinate flowers. Some plant species
with obligate outcrossing ability are exclusively
pollinated by carpenter bees, while some others
with self- and outcrossing ability are also
pollinated by other insects. Further, there are
mutualistic pollinating relationships between
carpenter bees and plants (Snow and Roubik
1987, Scott et al. 1993). The carpenter bees
exhibit various flower-foraging behaviours such
as opportunistic, territorial, traplining, buzzing,
and others for utilising forage efficiently. These
behaviour patterns benefit the plants largely in
outcrossing. Altogether, the foraging of carpenter
bees provide an excellent service for plants that
they pollinate, especially for obligate outcrossers,
and enhances the fecundity and adult
maintenance in bees. In view of the importance
of foraging behaviours of carpenter bees in
pollination, this paper aims at describing the
floral, structural and functional features of 15
plant species and their adaptations to pollination
by carpenter bees Xylocopa latipes and
X. pubescens (Table 1). Of these, two are
mangrove plant species, Acanthus ilicifolius and
Caesalpinia nuga , occurring in estuarine
habitats of Coringa (16° 55' N, 82° 15' E). Two
others, Anisomeles malabarica and A. indica are
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
381
DETAILS OF FLOWERS AND FORAGERS OF DIFFERENT PLANT SPECIES
FORAGING BEHA VIOUR OF CARPENTER BEESXYLOGOYA
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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3) DEC. 2000
L-Longitudinal, P-Poricidal, Ye-Yellow, Cr-Creamy-white, La-Lavendar, Bi-Blue, Pu-Puiple, Wh-White; T-Traces, X-Xenogamy, G-Geitonogamy,
A-Autogamy; B-Bees, Cb-Carpenter bees, F-Flies, W-Wasps, An-Ants. Th-Thrips, Bu-Butteiflies, H-Hawkmoth, Sb-Sunbirds; N-Nectar, P-Pollen;
Te-Territoriality, Tr-Traplining, Op-Opportunistic, Buz-Buzzing.
FORA GING BEHA VIOUR OF CARPENTER BEES XYLOCOPA
inhabitants of the foothills of Giddalur area ( 1 5°
10' N, 18° 45' E); all others occur in
Visakhapatnam (17° 42' N, 82° 18' E).
The floral features and foraging behaviour
of carpenter bees with reference to pollination
have been reported by Aluri (1990, 1993); Aluri
and Subba Reddi (1989, 1994, 1996a, b);
Bhaskara Rao and Subba Reddi (1994a, b); Jyothi
et al. (1990); Subba Reddi and Aluri (1997);
Subba Reddi and Bhaskara Rao, (1993); and
Subba Reddi et al. (1996, 1997). The foraging
behaviour of carpenter bees and breeding systems
have been further studied extensively in the field,
where the abovementioned plant species occur.
Floral details and foraging behaviour of
carpenter bees
1. Acanthus ilicifolius L. (Acanthaceae):
This plant grows in the estuarine habitats of
Coringa and adjoining areas in the Godavari
delta and flowers during May- August. Its flowers
are large, blue and nectariferous. The flower has
a cartilaginous corolla tube, terminating in an
upper lip sheltering stamens and the pistil, and
a lower lip which serves as a landing site for
foragers. The stigma projects beyond the anthers.
The pollen receptacle consists of fertile and sterile
anthers, which are firmly interlocked. Separation
of these locules and subsequent liberation of
pollen are possible only by large-bodied
pollinators. The flowers are visited by carpenter
bees along with sunbirds for nectar; both are
equally efficient in exploiting the nectar and
effecting cross-pollination. While probing the
flower, the carpenter bee inserts its proboscis
through the pollen receptacle with much force
to get at the nectar. This results in the separation
of fertile locules from the sterile ones and
shedding pollen on to the back of the bee and on
the stigma. If the bee carries pollen from the
previously visited flower, it results in
cross-pollination or else effects selfing. The
separated anther locules regain their original
position with the departure of the bee. In
consequence, the flowers receive multiple visits,
hence cross- or self-pollination is ensured. The
bees show fidelity to this plant throughout its
flowering by exhibiting territorial foraging
behaviour to exploit the nectar.
2. Alangium salviifolium (Linn. F.)
Wang. (Alangiaceae): A small deciduous tree,
it sheds leaves before flowering. It flowers during
February- April. Although the flowers are open
day and night, they are foraged for pollen and /
or nectar by diurnal insects — bees, wasps, flies
and butterflies. Of these, carpenter bees show
fidelity to this plant by foraging throughout the
flowering period and largely effecting
cross-pollination. The flowers stand out visually
by their large display and by shedding leaves
which attract the bees. The carpenter bees exhibit
traplining and territorial foraging behaviour.
Traplining is employed to forage on the distantly
spaced plants intermingled with other plant
species, and territoriality to forage on the plants
aggregated in one place. These two behaviour
patterns occur throughout the flowering period,
and probably promote xenogamy.
3 & 4. Anisomeles malabarica R. Br. and
A. indica O. Kuntze (Lamiaceae): These two
species are herbaceous perennials and grow from
both rootstock and seed. A. malabarica shows
vegetative growth in July, flowers during
mid-October and disappears in January. A. indica
shows vegetative growth and flowers during
October to mid-January. It exhibits flowering
episodes in response to water stress. The flowers
open from 0100-0500 hrs in A. malabarica and
from 0530-0730 hrs in A. indica. The flower
structure of the two species is similar. The flowers
are purple, showy, large, fragrant, bisexual and
nectariferous. They are bilabiate, with stamens
and style extending beyond the small upper lip
resembling the classical gullet type blossom. Day-
flying bees, wasps, ants, thrips, butterflies and
sunbirds visit the flowers of both species, of
which only carpenter bees and sunbirds are
regular and perform efficient and effective
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(3), DEC 2000
383
FORA GING BEHA VIOUR OF CARPENTER BEES XYLOCOPA
pollination. Other foragers visit the flowers
occasionally, and some of them deplete the floral
forage by probing from the side of the flowers,
bypassing the pollination apparatus. The
carpenter bees, after landing on the strong lower
lip, probe flowers in an upright position for
nectar, during which the stigma situated near the
tip of upper lip contacts the residual pollen in
the dorsal crevice of the bees. The male carpenter
bees exhibit territorial and traplining foraging
behaviour and collect only nectar. This dual
behaviour greatly profits the taxa in achieving
outcrossing. Sunbirds are equally important for
pollination. They feed on the nectar of flowering
Anisomeles throughout winter.
5. Bauhinia purpurea Linn.
(Caesalpiniaceae): An evergreen, popular
ornamental tree, flowers during October-
December; some trees may flower up to February.
The flowers open daily from 0430-0530 hrs. They
are large, purple, showy, bisexual and
nectariferous. The flowers are dichogamous,
showing anther dehiscence in 1 st day flowers and
stigmatic receptivity in 2nd day flowers. This
floral trait precludes self-pollination. The
availability of both phases in different flowers
on the same plant on a day facilitates
geitonogamy. The flowers are foraged by bees,
wasps and butterflies; bees are regular, consistent
foragers, while wasps and butterflies are
occasional and least important in effecting
pollination. Among bees, the carpenter bee and
the digger bee Amegilla, are the principal
pollinators. The carpenter bee usually alights on
the staminal filaments and crawls into the flower,
seeking nectar. While taking off, the bee’s body
touches the anthers and the pollen is deposited
on the dorsum. If the bee, after its visit to a 1st
day flower, visits a 2nd day flower, the receptive
stigma contacts precisely with the pollen
deposited area and results in pollination. They
forage equally on male and female phase flowers,
thereby promoting geitonogamy and xenogamy.
Sometimes the bees probe the flowers laterally,
bypassing the pollination apparatus, a behaviour
pattern known as side-working. AbouF25% of
the foraging visits relate to side working.
6. Caesalpinia nuga Ait.
(Caesalpiniaceae): It thrives well in the estuarine
habitats of Coringa and blooms during
March-June. Its flowers are large, bisexual,
protandrous and nectariferous, opening every
morning. The flowers are aromatic, yellow with
nectar guide on the upper petal, and the
reproductive structures placed near the lower part
of the corolla. Xylocopa latipes and X. pubescens
are the principal pollinators; they are diurnal
foragers and collect only nectar. Guided by the
nectar guide, the bees probe the flower in upright
position and contact anthers and stigma with
their sternum. They exhibit traplining foraging
behaviour.
7. Cassia alata L. (Caesalpiniaceae): It is
a herbaceous shrub and blooms in October-
February. The flowers open daily between
0300-0400 hrs. They are large, yellow, bisexual,
nectarless and exhibit heteranthery, having
feeding pollinating anthers with poricidal
dehiscence, and enantiostyly having right and
left stylar orientation. Carpenter bees are the
exclusive foragers of this plant, collecting pollen
by buzzing. While buzzing, the vibration of the
bee causes discharge of pollen from the
pollinating anthers on to the sides of the bee’s
thorax and abdomen. At the same time, the pollen
grains are transferred to the stigmas oriented to
the right or to the left. The intensity of buzzing
increases with bee size, resulting in more
effective pollen discharge and pollination.
Heteranthery and enantiostyly, with the buzzing
behaviour of pollinator carpenter bees promote
cross-pollination.
8. Peltophorum pterocarpum Backer ex.
K. Heyne (Caesalpiniaceae): Flowers profusely
during March-June. The flowers open during
daylight hours. The large, bright yellow corolla
is a convenient landing site for the pollinator.
Monomorphic anthers release pollen all at once,
384
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3) DEC. 2000
FORA GING BEHA VIOUR OF CARPENTER BEES XYLOCOP A
along the entire length of the anthers, typically
by complete longitudinal stomial slits, filiform
style terminating in a capitate stigma lying above
the stamens, and the nectar produced in traces is
hidden by dense silky structures present at and
around the basal parts of stamens. The flowers
are promiscuous to any visitor species but
carpenter bees, Ceratina and Trigona are the only
foragers. Among the foraging bees, Ceratina and
Trigona are small in size, and hence
inappropriate for pollination. Further, they are
infrequent visitors. The carpenter bees are large
in size, regular and frequent foragers. They are
the principal foragers, effecting pollination while
probing for pollen and/or nectar. The male
carpenter bees collect nectar and the females both
nectar and pollen. Both sexes probe the flower
legitimately for nectar. The pollen feeding
females probe the flower by buzzing. After
landing on the petals and/or stamens, they rapidly
contract the indirect flight muscles, producing
strong vibrations that are transmitted directly to
the anthers, indicated by the audible buzzing of
the bees. The vibrations rapidly produce a pollen
cloud from the anthers, which along with the
stigma, simultaneously strike the ventral side of
the bee and result in stemotribic pollination. The
buzzing is very brief at sunrise and gradually
increases towards midday. Further, the floral
vibrations are single buzzes in the morning
hours, and the bees stay at one position on the
flowers. Later in the day, the bees use multiple
buzzes and rotate on the flowers, depending on
the availability of pollen. This results in the most
efficient extraction of pollen, promoting
outcrossing.
9. Tamarindus indica Linn.
(Caesalpiniaceae): A tall tree that has become
indigenous, now commonly found in the tropics.
It flowers from April to August. The small,
creamy, bisexual, nectariferous flowers open each
night between 2300-0400 hrs. The corolla is
tubular at the base and has one small central petal
rolled upwards, and two large lateral ones. The
gynaecium exhibits enantiostyly. Although the
flowers open at night, they are foraged by diurnal
insects. The foragers include bees, ants, wasps,
flies and butterflies. Of these, bees are dominant
and among them, honey bees are the major
pollinators while carpenter bees act as minor
pollinators. Nectar gathering carpenter bees first
land on the central petal in an upright position,
and then insert into the tubular part of the corolla.
This facilitates simultaneous contact of the sex
organs with the bee’s back, resulting in nototribic
pollination. Although carpenter bees are minor
pollinators, their inter-tree flight behaviour
assumes great significance if cross-pollination
of all the pollinator insects is considered.
10. Cochlo sp ermu m religiosum (L.)
Alston (Cochlospermaceae): A deciduous,
tropical tree, it is used commercially and for the
afforestation of bare, rocky, denuded hills. After
shedding leaves, it flowers during January- April.
The large, showy, bright yellow, bisexual,
nectarless flowers open daily from 2300-2400
hrs. The stamens are numerous and arranged in
two whorls, anther dehiscence is poricidal. The
style with a capitate stigma projects out from the
base of the ovary and stands at the level of
anthers. The flowers are foraged for pollen by
carpenter bees Xylocopa, Amegilla , honey bees
Apis cerana indica, A. florea and stingless bees
Trigona ; but only carpenter bees are regular,
consistent and effective in harvesting the pollen
crop. The others are occasional foragers, and play
a minor role as pollinators. The carpenter bees,
upon landing on the anthers, vibrate their body
to discharge pollen through the apical pore of
the anthers. The entire body of the carpenter bees
is sprinkled with pollen, but most of the pollen
is deposited on the ventral side of the bee. The
pollen laden bees when foraging on the same or
other inflorescences on the same plant effect
geitonogamy and on flowers of different
conspecific plants effect xenogamy.
11. Couroupita guianensis Aubl.
(Lecythidaceae): Flowers almost throughout the
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC 2000
385
FORA GING BEHA VIOUR OF CARPENTER BEES X YLOCOPA
year with heavy flowering in Febraary-March.
It exhibits cauliflory. The flowers are inverted,
yellow on the abaxial face and purple on the
adaxial face, nectarless but produce abundant
pollen. The androecium is characterized by
stamens of the ring and hood which are
connected by a stamen-free ligular structure. The
ring stamens serve as pollinating stamina, and
hood stamens as feeding stamina, exhibiting
heteranthery. The stigma has a star-like fissure
and becomes receptive after anther dehiscence.
The flowers open daily around dawn. Their
fragrance is released through osmophores present
in the corolla and at the top of the filaments of
the hood anthers. Carpenter bees, honey bees and
the stingless bee are attracted to this fragrance.
Considering their frequency, foraging behaviour,
efficiency in harvesting pollen and effective
pollination, carpenter bees assume principal
pollinator status.
The carpenter bees, while entering the
flower, push the hood down, causing the release
of pollen (tetrads) that simultaneously adhere to
the ventral part of the bee and are accessible for
grooming. After entering the flower, they collect
pollen from the hood, and during pollen
collection they rub their dorsal parts against the
ring anthers and the stigma, detaching several
ring anthers in the process, resulting in nototribic
pollination. The bees opportunistically visit the
plant for pollen and other plants like Gliricidia
sepium and Peltophorum pterocarpum for nectar
during the same period.
12. Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Walp
(Fabaceae): It is widely cultivated in the tropics
for shade and as an ornamental tree. It sheds
leaves before flowering and flowers from January
to mid-March. Its flowers open between 0730-
1600 brs. The flowers are lavender, large,
bisexual, odourless and nectariferous. The corolla
is characteristically papilionaceous and has a
light greenish-yellow glistening spot serving as
a nectar guide. Stamens are diadelphous, and the
style springs through the staminal tube and
overarches the stamens. The flowers are visited
by Xylocopa (Family Xylocopidae) Trigona
(Apidae) and Ceratina (Anthophoridae).
Xylocopid bees are large, abundant and Regularly
forage for nectar, while the other two bees are
small, foraging occasionally for pollen and
nectar. Their foraging behaviour, coupled with
floral features such as spacious, strong corolla,
light colour, and nectar hidden by the staminal
tube, indicate that carpenter bees are the principal
pollinators, while the other bees are incidental
pollinators. Carpenter bees forage in sunlight.
They probe the flowers in upright position and
make regular contact with stamens and stigma
sternotribically. The flowering trees stand out
visually and appear conspicuous to the bees from
a distance because of their large floral display,
which enables the carpenter bees to exhibit
traplining. Towards the end of the flowering
period, floral density is reduced, compelling the
carpenter bees to forage opportunistically on this
taxon and on the nearby Peltophorum
pterocarpum for pollen and/or nectar, and Cassia
species for pollen, which is available at the same
time.
13. Gmelina asiatica Linn. (Verbenaceae):
A deciduous, perennial, straggling shrub,
flowering from March-October. The flowers open
between 0500-0600 hrs every day. They are large,
yellow, bisexual and nectariferous. The corolla
is tubular at the base and its free end is inflated
into, a bilipped bell-like structure with the upper
lip enlarged and the lower lip with a large central
lobe and two small lateral lobes. Stamens are
didynamous and epipetalous. The stigma is
simple and stretched beyond the anthers. The
flowers are foraged exclusively by day-foraging
bees, e.g. Xylocopa , Amegilla, Trigona and
Ceratina. Effective pollination in this shrub is
by carpenter bees, which forage for nectar only.
They approach the flower in upright position,
land on the lower corolla lip and crawl into the
tubular part, stretching their proboscis to full
length. In doing so, the dorsal surface of their
386
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3) DEC. 2000
FORA GING BEHA VIOUR OF CARPENTER BEES X YLOCOPA
body makes initial contact with the stigma and
then with the dehisced anthers, effecting
nototriby. If the bees carry on their back
conspecific pollen from previously foraged
flowers, they effect cross-pollination by their
initial contact with the stigma. The other bees
are of no use to the plant as pollinators, but nectar
depletion by Amegilla indirectly forces carpenter
bees to pay multiple visits to the flowers to satisfy
their energy requirement. Further, the carpenter
bees exhibit traplining, which promotes cross-
pollination.
14. Marty nia annua L. (Martyniaceae):
An annual that normally flowers during July-
October. Flowers open everyday between 0400-
0500 hrs. The flowers are large, showy, bisexual
and nectariferous. The corolla is pendant and
tubular, with its mouth containing nectar guides
directed laterally. The stamens are epipetalous,
with syngenecious anthers. The style with bilobed
stigma overarches the anther. Flowers are foraged
by carpenter bees, digger bees and hawkmoths
during the day. The hawkmoth is an inefficient
pollinator, but may compel the bees to make
multiple visits to the flowers by depleting nectar.
The two bee species are equally efficient in
pollination of the taxon. While probing the
flowers, they land on the large lip and penetrate
into the corolla tube following the nectar guides.
In doing so, their dorsal side touches the sex
organs and pollination results.
15. Moringa oleifera Lam.
(Moringaceae): Popularly known as the
drumstick tree, it thrives best under a tropical
insular climate. The tree is valued for the tender
pods used as vegetables. This tree blooms twice
a year, during February-May and again during
September-November; the former blooming is
more intense. The flowers open between 0500-
0900 hrs. They are creamy white, large, showy,
bisexual and nectariferous. They are foraged by
a variety of insects but carpenter bees and digger
bees are the main pollinators. Even among these,
carpenter bees are the most appropriate for
manipulating the flower. Carpenter bees gather
only nectar; while doing so, they alight on the
reflexed petals and probe for nectar during which
the sex organs brush against their dorsal side,
effecting nototriby. They travel long distances to
forage on widely dispersed conspecific plants.
This inter-tree movement promotes xenogamy.
The bees are also opportunistic in that they use
other nectariferous plants in the study area.
Discussion and Conclusions
Most of the plant species described are
zygomorphic, large, showy and bisexual; some
have long tubes and others short, all perfectly
adapted to pollination by carpenter bees. Species
with the sex organs placed near or along the
upper lip are adapted to nototriby. Caesalpinia
and Gliricidia have their sex organs in the lower
part of the corolla and are adapted to stemotriby.
The anthesis timings in different plant species
are different, some at night, others during the
day and one, i.e. Alangium , both day and night;
but the flowers of all the species are foraged
diumally. Anisomeles and Acanthus are foraged
by insects as well as sunbirds. Caesalpinia and
Cassia are outcrossers, exclusively foraged and
pollinated by carpenter bees. Some plant species
are foraged by different groups of insects and
others exclusively by bees, but carpenter bees are
the main pollinators, also Amegilla for Martynia
and sunbirds for Acanthus and Anisomeles.
Carpenter bees effect pollination through
nototriby and stemotriby; the former is a more
advanced mechanism in which pollen deposition
is very precise and not accessible for grooming
by the bees. It ensures pollination success, while
in stemotriby, pollen wastage takes place during
grooming of the bee and in flight, and is thus
not economical.
Carpenter bees exhibit buzzing behaviour
while collecting pollen of the nectarless Cassia
and Cochlospermum, in which anther dehiscence
is poricidal, and of Peltophorum flowers with
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
387
FORA GING BEHA VIOUR OF CARPENTER BEES XYLOCOPA
longitudinally dehiscent anthers. Buzzing is
typical in pollinators of poricidal flowers that
exhibit heteranthery and enantiostyly as in
Cassia, or without these devices as in
Cochlospermum (Buchmann 1983), while
Peltophorum with firmly adhered oily pollen is
also buzz-pollinated. On some plant species, the
carpenter bees exhibit territoriality or traplining
or both, and on others, opportunistic foraging
behaviour. Territoriality means that the bees
select a population of flowers rich in nutrients,
usually from one plant species, and obtain food
within the same population throughout the
flowering season. When exhibiting territorial
behaviour, male bees alternately defend the
selected flower population by chasing away
intruders and forage on the flowers. Traplining
is a foraging behaviour in which bees make long
distance flights and remember images of the
whole region visited on their regular rounds.
Opportunistic behaviour is when the bees exploit
floral resources, mainly nectar, from the flowers
of various plant species co-occurring and
blooming simultaneously, in order to obtain
forage for themselves and for their offspring (Pijil
1954, Janzen 1964, Frankie 1976, Barrows 1980,
Frankie et al. 1983, Aluri and Subba Reddi
1989). Of these types of behaviour, territoriality
and traplining impose fidelity in bees to remain
Refer
Aluri, J.S.R. (1990): Observations on the floral biology of
certain mangroves. Proc. Indian Nat. Sci. Acad.
(B)56: 367-374.
Aluri, J.S.R. (1993): Ecology of pollination and
reproduction in Couroupita guianensis Aubl.
(Lecythidaceae). J. Nat. Conserv. 5: 47-52.
Aluri, J.S.R.. & C. Subba Reddi (1989): Pollination biology
of Anisomeles indica and A. malabarica
(Lamiaceae). PI. Sp. Biol. 4 : 157-167.
Aluri, J.S.R.. & C. Subba Reddi (1994): Observations on
pollination in Alangium salviifolium (Linn.f) Wang.
(Alangiaceae). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 91(2): 345-
347.
Aluri, J.S.R. & C. Subba Reddi (1996a): Vibrational
pollination in Peltophorum pterocarpum
faithful to one flowering plant species, greatly
promoting outcrossing, whereas opportunistic
behaviour facilitates the use of available
flowering species in the biotope, depending on
the floral density or intensity of flowering.
All the plant species except Cassia ,
Cochlospermum and Couroupita are
nectariferous, with nectar volumes ranging from
0.8 to 80 jj.1 and sugar concentrations from 5 to
48% (authors’ data). The foraging of carpenter
bees on these plant species indicates that they
make use of variously concentrated sugars as
available at different times of the year for their
sustenance. Nectarless plant species provide
pollen rich in nutrients to carpenter bees. The
floral structural and functional devices, coupled
with variously coloured corolla: yellow, purple,
creamy-white, sometimes lavender, are evolved
for foraging by carpenter bees exclusively or
preferentially.
Both plants and carpenter bees mutually
benefit each other, and thereby ensure
perpetuation of both in their respective biotopes.
There is unequivocal evidence of the importance
of carpenter bees in the reproduction of different
species of plants, and thus for the production of
plant biomass of terrestrial ecosystems, and for
generating and maintaining genetic diversity of
the plants.
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Nat. Conserv. 8: 65-67.
Barrows, EM. (1980): Robbing of exotic plants by
introduced carpenter bees and honey bees in Hawaii,
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Bhaskara Rao, C. & C. Subba Reddi (1994a): Pollination
ecology of Martynia annua L. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 91(2): 187-193.
Bhaskara Rao, C. & C. Subba Reddi (1994b):
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FORA GING BEHA VIOUR OF CARPENTER BEES X YLOCOP A
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Jyothi, P.V., Atluri, J.B. & C. Subba Reddi (1990):
Pollination ecology of Moringa oleifera
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JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(3), DEC. 2000
389
DIVERSITY AND SPECIES -ABUNDANCE DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS
IN THE TROPICAL FORESTS OF SILENT VALLEY, KERALA1
E.A. Jayson2 and D.N. Mathew3
( With three text-figures)
Key words: Diversity, species-abundance, Silent Valley, Kerala
Diversity and species-abundance distribution of birds was studied in the evergreen and moist
deciduous forests of the Silent Valley, Kerala. The study was carried out from May 1988 to April
1993. Line transects were employed to census the birds. A total of 137 taxa of birds were recorded
from the study area. Diversity index of birds in the evergreen forests of Silent Valley and moist
deciduous forests of Mukkali was 3.45 and 3.30 respectively (Shannon-Wener Index).
Species-abundance models followed truncated log-normal distribution in both the vegetation
types, which indicated the absence of a single dominant species, or group, and the presence of a
long series of species, with few individuals. Similarity indices showed that the two areas were
similar in the composition of bird communities only at 40% level. More species with low numbers
of individuals were found in the evergreen forests of Silent Valley than in the moist deciduous
forests of Mukkali. Evaluation of the area showed the rich and undisturbed bird community at
Silent Valley and Mukkali, which is comparable to tropical forests of other countries. Considering
this, it is recommended that this area be added to the existing Silent Valley National Park.
Introduction
Avian community studies are effective tools
for monitoring a forest ecosystem. Evaluating
bird communities of the Western Ghats to plan
for biodiversity-friendly development is gaining
significance (Pramod et al. 1997). The Silent
Valley National Park was established in
September 1986. It occupies an area of 90
sq. km. The adjacent forest areas, starting from
Mukkali to the abandoned dam site, are not
included in the National Park; it only has the
status of a reserve forest. Considering this, there
was a proposal to declare the forests from
Mukkali up to Silent Valley National Park as a
Wildlife Sanctuary, to function as a buffer zone
for the National Park. A study was thus
'Accepted March, 2000
2Division of Wildlife Biology,
Kerala Forest Research Institute,
Peechi 680 653, Kerala, India.
3PlotNo. 1234, West End Colony,
Mogapair, Padi P.O., Chennai 600 050,
Tamil Nadu, India.
undertaken to determine the diversity and
species-abundance distribution of birds in the
forests adjacent to the Silent Valley National
Park. Ramakrishnan (1983) examined several
parameters of the bird communities in the forests
of northern Kerala. Diversity and community
structure of birds were also studied by Johnsingh
et al. (1987), Johnsingh et al. (1994), Katti
(1989), Daniels (1989, 1996, 1997), Gokula and
Vijayan (1996), and Sundaramoorthy (1991).
Diversity of tropical forest birds has been studied
in South America and in many other countries.
Similar studies in other regions examined the
structure of forest bird communities (Terborgh
etal. 1990), distribution (Howe et al. 1981) and
community organisation (Landers and Mac
Mahon, 1980).
Study Area
The study area is located in Palghat district,
Kerala State, from 11° 3' to 11° 13' N and 76°
25' to 76° 35' E, in the Western Ghats of
southwestern India, comprising the Silent Valley
390
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3) DEC. 2000
DIVERSITY AND ABUNDANCE OF FOREST BIRDS IN THE SILENT VALLEY
and Mukkali Reserve Forest (. JBNHS 97(1): 53,
Fig. 1 .) Two study sites were selected — one was
near the abandoned dam site at Silent Valley, with
tropical evergreen forests, and the other at
Mukkali, with moist deciduous forests. The
elevation varies from 500 to 1,500 m above msl
and the topography is undulating. Silent Valley
and Mukkali fall under the Malabar Rain Forest
Realm of Udvardy (1975). According to Rodgers
and Panwar (1989), the area falls under the
biogeographic zone 5 Western Ghats, and
Biogeographic Province 5B Western Ghats
mountains, and Biogeographic Subdivision
Nilgiri.
There are two distinct seasons in the study
area, the monsoon from the end of May to the
middle of November, and the dry summer season
from December to the first half of May.
Compared to Silent Valley (5,096 mm/year),
mean annual rainfall was less at Mukkali (4,227
mm/year). Temperature was high at Mukkali,
varying from 21 °C in January to 27 °C in April.
Pascal (1988) described the vegetation of the
Silent Valley as Cullenia exarillata - Mesua
ferrea - Palaquium ellipticum type, characterised
by an abundance of these three species, which
may constitute about 80% of the large trees.
Degraded areas and other vegetation types, like
grasslands, are also found here. Vegetation of
the Mukkali area is Southern Secondary Moist
Mixed Deciduous Forest (Champion and Seth,
1968).
Methods
Census methods: Variable width line
transects method was adopted for this study
(Burnham et al. 1981). Whenever a bird was
spotted, the species was identified and details like
the number of birds and perpendicular distance
from the transects were noted (Ali and Ripley
1983a, Ali and Ripley 1983b, Ali 1969).
Perpendicular distances were assessed
approximately up to metres. To assess the
distances, known distances were measured and
marked on trees, using a Range Finder, before
the census. Two line transects, each 4 km in
length, were selected, one at Silent Valley and
the other at Mukkali. The first transect covered
representative habitats of the area like evergreen
forest, small patch of grassland, and fire burned
evergreen forest. The second transect covered
moist deciduous forest. Along this transect, some
rocky patches were also seen, and some areas
had a history of fire, 10 years ago.
Census was started 30 minutes after sunrise
in all the months. The distance of 4,000 m was
covered within a fixed duration of 120 minutes,
i.e. 33 m/minute. On rainy days, 150 minutes
were spent on completing each transect. No
census was done on days with heavy rain and
fog. Two samples were collected from each area
in a month. Altogether, 150 samples were
collected from the study area, between May 1 988
and April 1993. Among these, 80 samples were
from Silent Valley and 70 from Mukkali,
collected over 45 months. There was a gap of
8 months from May 1991 to December 1991 in
the collection of data.
Abundance and density: The total
number of birds seen in each month in two
vegetation types was calculated using the census
data. Similarly, the density of birds in each area,
and individual abundance of selected species,
were also calculated.
The Fourier series method was used for
analysis, and the density was computed from
ungrouped, perpendicular distances from
transects. All the assumptions described by
Burnham et al. (1981) were followed during the
census. The density was computed using the
software TRANSECT. Ungrouped data was used
for analysis. A flock of birds was considered as a
single individual, and only one perpendicular
distance to the middle of the flock was measured.
The actual density was calculated by multiplying
density of flocks with the mean flock size. A bird
call was considered to be equivalent to a single
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
391
DIVERSITY AND ABUNDANCE OF FOREST BIRDS IN THE SILENT VALLEY
individual, and was used, along with sighting
records, for density estimation. The total bird
density was calculated for each month by pooling
the data of all the species. Species richness
indices like Margalef index and Menhinick index
were calculated for both sites, using the formula
described by Magurran (1988). Since the sample
sizes from the two areas are not equal, rarefaction
using Hurlbert’s (1971) formula was done. The
standardised sample size (n) is taken as the total
number of birds observed at Mukkali (2,628),
which is the smaller of the two.
Species-abundance models: Species-
abundance models were constructed as explained
in Magurran (1988). Species of birds were
ranked in order of abundance, as represented
by individuals seen for each species, and this
was plotted in decreasing order for all species
against the number of individuals for the two
areas. Truncated log-normal distribution was
fitted to species-abundance data, using
maximum likelihood estimation (Slocomb et al.
1977).
Diversity indices: Shannon- Wener index,
Simpson’s index and Hill’s diversity numbers N 1
and N2 were calculated for Silent Valley and
Mukkali, using the program SPECDIVERS.BAS
developed by Ludwig and Reynolds (1988).
Similarly, evenness was also calculated using the
same program. Similarity indices between the
two areas were calculated using Jaccard index,
Sorenson index and modified Sorenson
quantitative (Magurran 1988). In order to find
out whether any significant difference existed in
the bird diversity between the two places, a ‘t’
test was done using Shannon- Wener index, by
the Magurran method (1988). Jack-knifing of
diversity index was not attempted, since the two
diversities showed significant difference.
Results
Abundance and density: A total of 137
taxa of birds were recorded from the transects.
Out of these, 21 species were migrant at Silent
Valley and 1 1 at Mukkali. Silent Valley is not a
major wintering area of palaearctic migrants and
most of the birds show only local movements.
No wintering waterfowl were recorded from the
area. The migrants recorded here were wagtails
(Motacilla sp.), common rosefinch ( Carpodacus
erythrinus) and redwinged crested cuckoo
( Clamator coromandus). The mean number of
birds seen each month over the years is presented
in Table 1 . The lowest number of birds recorded
at Silent Valley was 43 and the highest 153. At
Mukkali, it was 41 and 78 respectively. A slight
reduction in the total number of birds was seen
during the monsoon. Chi-square test was done
for both study sites to find out if any significant
difference existed in the total number of birds
in various months. Results showed significant
difference for the Silent Valley (X2 = 131.09;
P = 0.001; df = 11) and Mukkali (X2 = 28.69; P
= 0.01; df = 11).
Mean monthly density of birds in each
month over the years is presented in Fig. 1.
maximum bird density was found in December
and minimum in August, at Silent Valley. At
Mukkali, lowest density was found in July and
highest in September. Mean density of birds
during the study period was 1,122 birds/sq. km,
Table 1
MEAN NUMBER OF BIRDS RECORDED IN EACH MONTH (1988-1 993) (N=l 50)
Months
Area
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
0
N
D
Silent Valley
91
87
70
65
76
43
46
47
95
81
109
153
Mukkali
66
54
77
52
49
66
43
51
68
58
78
41
392
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3) DEC 2000
DIVERSITY AND ABUNDANCE OF FOREST BIRDS IN THE SILENT VALLEY
3000
2500 -
2000 -
CM
I
f 1500
c
0
Q
1000
500 -
■
n
M
n
M J J A
Months
Silent Valley □ Mukkali
%
|
If
■
N D
Fig. 1: Density of birds in each month at Silent Valley and Mukkali (1988-1993)
at Silent Valley and 780 birds/sq. km, at
Mukkali.
Individual species abundance: Out of the
99 and 96 species observed at Silent Valley and
Mukkali respectively, the monthly abundance of
each of 10 commonly observed species was
calculated (Tables 2 and 3). The birds of Silent
Valley can be grouped into two, based on the
difference in abundance over months. The first
group pf resident birds showed an almost stable
abundance, while the second group registered an
increase in abundance in summer. The first group
Table 2
MEAN MONTHLY ABUNDANCE OF SELECTED BIRDS AT SILENT VALLEY, 1 988-1993 (N=l 50)
Months
Species
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
0
N
D
Black bulbul
3
5
3
4
1
-
.
.
4
.
23
36
Pied bushchat
3
3
4
3
3
2
2
2
2
1
2
6
Goldenbacked woodpecker
1
1
2
1
1
0
1
1
1
2
3
1
Greyjunglefowl
3
2
2
1
-
-
-
1
2
2
1
1
Hill myna
6
8
5
6
5
1
-
-
14
1
7
8
Malabar whistling thrush
1
1
1
2
3
1
2
1
0
2
1
1
Redwhiskered bulbul
1
3
4
2
4
0
1
0
3
7
1
1
Small green barbet
2
5
4
2
1
0
0
1
2
4
6
6
Southern treepie
1
0
1
1
3
1
1
0
0
2
1
2
Yellowbrowed bulbul
13
13
9
12
16
19
16
14
18
16
12
12
- not recorded
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC 2000 393
DIVERSITY AND ABUNDANCE OF FOREST BIRDS IN THE SILENT VALLEY
Table 3
MEAN MONTHLY ABUNDANCE OF SELECTED BIRDS AT MUKKALI, 1 988-1993 (N=l 50)
Months
Species
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
0
N
D
Black drongo
2
3
5
1
3
4
4
-
3
3
3
4
Blossomheaded parakeet
4
3
1
1
-
-
-
-
1
6
6
3
Goldenbacked woodpecker
2
2
1
1
1
2
1
-
1
1
1
-
Jungle babbler
7
7
11
11
8
13
10
12
13
10
1
4
Magpie-robin
1
2
1
2
1
1
-
-
2
-
-
-
Racket-tailed drongo
1
1
2
1
2
4
1
2
2
1
2
2
Redvented bulbul
2
1
4
3
2
2
3
1
3
1
3
2
Small green barbet
4
4
6
5
1
2
1
-
1
1
3
1
Spotted dove
3
2
2
1
-
-
1
-
1
2
1
-
Yellowbrowed bulbul
2
1
2
1
-
2
3
3
1
2
3
2
- not recorded
comprised of grey junglefowl ( Gallus sonneratii),
Malabar whistling thrush ( Myiophonus
horsfieldii), southern treepie ( Dendrocitta
vagabunda), yellowbrowed bulbul ( Hypsipetes
indicus ), small green barbet (Megalaima viridis)
and pied bushchat ( Saxicola caprata).
The second group comprised of black
bulbul (Hypsipetes madagascariensis), parakeets
(. Psittacula spp.), doves (Streptopelia spp.) and
pigeons (Tver on spp.) which showed an increase
in number during summer, and a decrease during
monsoon, while in June and July they were
absent. The small green barbet, roseringed
parakeet (Psittacula krameri ) and the
blossomheaded parakeet (P. cyanocephala)
showed maximum density during the dry months
at Mukkali. Compaicu io ttie Silent Valley, the
overall abundance of birds (Table 3) was lower
(in both seasons) at Mukkali and higher during
winter. Certain species showed consistent
abundance in both areas. The abundance of the
yellowbrowed bulbul was stable at Silent Valley,
while that of the redvented bulbul (Pycnonotus
cafer ) and small green barbet was stable at
Mukkali.
Species richness indices: Margalef index
and Menhinick index showed higher values for
Mukkali (12.18 & 1.89) and lower values for
Silent Valley (1 1 .40 & 1 .35). Rarefaction showed
that the expected number of species at Silent
Valley would be 83.
Species-abundance models: Another way
of describing diversity in a community is through
species-abundance or distribution models
introduced by Fischer et al. (1943). A
species-abundance model utilizes all the
information gathered in a community, and is the
most complete mathematical description of the
data (Magurran, 1988). Species-abundance
distribution of Silent Valley and Mukkali in
semi-log scale is presented in Figs. 2 and 3. This
distribution indicates the absence of a single
dominant species or group of species, and the
presence of a long series of very rare species at
Silent Valley and Mukkali. (Species represented
by less than 2% of individuals recorded are
termed as rare: Magurran, 1988). The observed
and expected number of species was compared
using X2 goodness of fit test. The test showed no
significant difference between the observed and
expected distribution. This indicated that the
distribution pattern follows truncated log-normal
(X2= 8.63; P = 0.30) at Silent Valley. At Mukkali
also, the distribution pattern was a truncated
log-normal distribution (X2 = 9.67; P 0.16).
Diversity indices: Values of four diversity
394
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3) DEC 2000
No. of species No. of species
DIVERSITY AND ABUNDANCE OF FOREST BIRDS IN THE SILENT VALLEY
No. of individuals (log scale)
Fig. 2: Species-abundance distribution of birds at Silent Valley
Fig. 3: Species-abundance distribution of birds at Mukkali
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
395
DIVERSITY AND ABUNDANCE OF FOREST BIRDS IN THE SILENT VALLEY
Table 4
BIRD SPECIES DIVERSITY IN THE STUDY AREA, 1988-93 (N=150)
No. of No. of Simpson's Shannon Hill's Hill's
species individuals Index Wener Index Number N1 Number N2
Silent Valley 99 5412 0.07 3.30 27.14 14.54
Mukkali 96 2641 0.06 3.45 31.38 15.67
indices obtained for Silent Valley and Mukkali
are given in Table 4. A higher diversity index
was obtained at Mukkali. Significant difference
was obtained in the diversity of the two study
sites from the ‘t’ test (t = 4.7734; P = 0.05; df
6,094).
The values of evenness measures showed
higher evenness at Mukkali (0.75) than Silent
Valley (0.72). Value of Jaccard index (Cj) was
0.40 and Sorenson index (Cs) was 0.57. The
computed similarity indices showed medium
similarity between the two study sites. Out of the
137 species recorded in the two areas, only 56
species were common to both sites. One
disadvantage with the above indices was that they
do not consider abundance data. Instead, the
presence of abundant and rare individuals is
given equal consideration. Similarity measures
based on quantitative data solved this problem.
Modified Sorenson quantitative was such a
measure, and the computed value was Cn = 0.44.
Of the three similarity indices computed, Jaccard
and Sorenson quantitative shows a similarity
above 40% and the Sorenson index shows a
similarity of 57% between Silent Valley and
Mukkali.
Discussion
The total number of birds sighted each
month showed significant difference between
Silent Valley and Mukkali. In December, there
was substantial increase in the density and
number of birds. Similarly, Morrison etal. (1980)
also reported reduction of birds during the
non-winter period and their increase during
winter. One factor influencing the abundance is
detectability. Seasonal differences in detectability
are common for most of the bird species (Emlen,
1971). These differences result from changes in
weather and habitat structure. Increasing foliage
density decreased the visibility of birds. But in
the study area, foliage abundance was identical
in all seasons in the evergreen forests of Silent
Valley, and there was a reduction in foliage
abundance in the moist deciduous forests of
Mukkali during summer (Jayson 1994). Rainfall
had some influence on detectability in both the
vegetation types. The higher density of birds
observed in Silent Valley and lower density in
Mukkali indicate the ability of tropical evergreen
forest to harbour more birds than moist deciduous
forest. The number of individuals per sq. km is
comparable to tropical forests of other countries
(Table 5). The grey junglefowl, Malabar
whistling thrush, southern tree pie and
yellowbrowed bulbul showed a stable population,
while the black bulbul, doves and pigeons showed
an increase in population during summer at
Silent Valley. The rest could have moved out due
to rainfall and changes in prey abundance. The
differences in abundance of these two groups,
caused due to local movement, may enable them
to cope with the resource availability and climatic
conditions. Of these, the black bulbul is a known
local migrant.
Species richness in an area is dependent
on the availability of food, climate, evolutionary
history, and predation pressure. Species richness
indices and diversity indices showed high
diversity for Mukkali. This is a moist deciduous
forest with human interference. It is likely that
396
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3) DEC. 2000
DIVERSITY AND ABUNDANCE OF FOREST BIRDS IN THE SILENT VALLEY
Table 5
COMPARISON OF PRESENT STUDY WITH SIMILAR STUDIES IN OTHER TROPICAL COUNTRIES
Country/ Area
No. of species
Density
Vegetation
Source
Silent Valley (India)
99
1,122 birds/sq. km
Tropical Evergreen
Present study
Mukkali (India)
96
780 birds/sq. km
Tropical Moist deciduous
Present study
Panama
-
1,820 birds/sq. km
Tropical Evergreen
Karr (1971)
(French) Guiana
263
1,520 birds/sq. km
-
Thiollay (1986)
Gabon
364
3,690 birds/sq. km
Rainforest
Brosset ( 1 990)
New Guinea
-
3,450 birds/sq. km
Lowland rain forest
Bell (1983)
Amazon
245
1,9 10 birds/sq. km
-
Terborgh et al. ( 1 990)
the colonisation by man has diversified the food
resources available to birds. Another reason, to
which the high diversity at Mukkali can be
attributed, is the availability of varied
microhabitats.
Many rare species of birds occur at Silent
Valley and Mukkali, which is typical of tropical
forests (Lovejoy, 1975). The factors which control
the species richness in an area are broadly divided
into historical and ecological (Giller, 1984).
Among the historical factors, speciation and
crossing of geological barriers, and supply of
colonists are more important. Among the
ecological factors, mortality due to predation is
important, and many such cases were recorded
from both the areas.
Currently, many models are available for
describing species-abundance distribution and
some of them are geometric series: the
log-normal, the log series and MacArthur’s
Broken-stick model. Preston (1948) introduced
the log-normal distribution to explain the
species-abundance data. Usually in ecological
work, distribution of species is always truncated
at the left side (Preston 1962). Geometric series
patterns are usually found in species-poor or
harsh environments. Log-series patterns are
usually observed where one or a few factors
dominate the ecology of a community.
Log-normal distribution is found in most
biological populations. The Broken-stick model
distribution shows the maximum equitable
distribution of available resources. Species-
abundance distribution at Silent Valley and
Mukkali follows the truncated log-normal model.
The Amazonian forest bird community also
showed log-normal distribution in species-
abundance (Terborgh et al. 1 990). As in the case
of birds, species-abundance of ants in
Kobbeduinen and Kooiduinen approximately
agreed with log-normal distribution (Boomsa and
Van Loon 1982). This clearly explains the
existence of an undisturbed bird community in
both the areas.
Diversity indices are dependent on two
factors, species richness and evenness.
Considerable discussion is on about the
measurement of diversity, which is directly
correlated with the stability of the ecosystems,
being higher in biologically controlled systems,
and lower in polluted ecosystems (Rosenberg
1976). But some authors like Hurlbert (1971)
even consider diversity indices as a
‘non-concept’.
Higher diversity indices were obtained for
Mukkali than for Silent Valley. As the
microhabitats were diverse at Mukkali, they
naturally support a more diverse bird community.
Similarly, there was slightly higher evenness at
Mukkali. This is also natural, as tropical wet
evergreen forests support more rare species than
other habitats. Similar observations have been
reported by Pearson (1977). As the evenness
measures show high values, it can be concluded
that species are uniformly represented by
individuals at Mukkali.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC 2000
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DIVERSITY AND ABUNDANCE OF FOREST BIRDS IN THE SILENT VALLEY
A number of hypotheses have been made
to explain the characteristic diversity profiles of
different habitats. Habitat heterogeneity, in
addition to area, is an important determinant of
species richness (Boecklen and Simberloff 1986).
Habitat factors such as tree density, basal area,
number of tree species, percent ground cover,
percent canopy cover and canopy height, are also
important in determining diversity. Habitat
heterogeneity at Mukkali may be one of the
factors causing the higher diversity recorded.
Diversity indices are extensively used in
environmental monitoring and testing, and in
conservation. As the objective of world
conservation strategy is to maximise diversity of
habitats, these indices are extensively used to
monitor and evaluate habitats. According to
Usher (1986), diversity is the most frequently
adopted criterion for evaluation of conservation
schemes. Diversity indices are directly correlated
with the stability of the ecosystem and will be
high in biologically controlled systems, as seen
at Silent Valley and Mukkali. All diversity
Refer
Ali, S. (1969): The Birds of Kerala. Oxford University
Press, Bombay. Pp 444.
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983a): A Pictorial Guide to the
Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. Bombay Natural
History Society, Oxford University Press, Bombay.
Pp. 177.
All S. & S.D. Rjpley (1983b): Handbook of the Birds of
India and Pakistan. Oxford University Press, Oxford,
737 pp.
Bell, H.L. (1983): A bird community of lowland rainforest
in New Guinea. 6. Foraging ecology and community
structure of the avifauna. Emu 84 : 1 42- 1 59.
Boecklen, W.J. & D. Simberloff (1986): Area-based
extinction models. In: Conservation in Dynamics of
Extinction, Ed. D.K. Elliott, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, pp.247-76.
Boomsa, J. J. & A.J. Van Loon (1982): Structure and
diversity of ant communities in successive coastal
dune valleys. J. Anim. Ecol. 51: 957-974.
Brosset, A. (1990): A long term study of the rain forest
birds in m’ Passa (Gabon). In: Biography and Ecology
of Forest Birds SPB Academic, The Hague. A. Keast
indices have limitations because they attempt to
combine a number of variables that characterise
community structure. The evaluation of the area
shows the rich and undisturbed species diversity
of birds at Silent Valley and Mukkali, which is
comparable to other tropical forests. It is
recommended that the forests from Mukkali up
to the National Park be declared as a protected
area, to function as a buffer zone for the Silent
Valley National Park.
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr. K.A. Mercey, Dept of
Statistics, College of Veterinary and Animal
Sciences, Mannuthy, Kerala Agricultural
University, for advice in statistical analysis,
Dr. Lalitha Vijayan and Dr. Ramakrishnan Palat
for valuable suggestions. Financial assistance to
the first author from the Ministry of Environment
and Forest, Government of India is
acknowledged. We thank the anonymous
reviewers who helped improve this paper.
•NCES
(Ed.).
Burnham, K.P., D.R. Anderson & J.L. Laake (1981): Line
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a Fourier series. In: Estimating the Number of
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Studies in Avian Biology No. 6. Cooper Ornithological
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Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968): A Revised Survey of
the Forest Types of India, Govt of India, Delhi. Pp.
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Daniels, R.J.R. (1989): A conservation strategy for the
birds of the Uttara Kannada District. Ph.D. Thesis.
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.
Daniels, R.J.R. (1996): Landscape ecology and
conservation of birds in the Western Ghats, South
India. Ibis 138:64- 69.
Daniels, R.J.R. (1997): A Field Guide to the birds of South
Western India, Oxford University Press, New Delhi,
PP 217.
Emlen, J.T. (1971): Population densities of birds derived
from transect counts. Auk 88: 323-342.
Fischer, R.A., A.S. Corbet & C.B. Williams ( 1943): The
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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3) DEC. 2000
DIVERSITY AND ABUNDANCE OF FOREST BIRDS IN THE SILENT VALLEY
relationship between the number of species and the
number of individuals in a random sample of an
animal population. J. Anim. Ecol. 12: 42-58.
Giller, P. S. (1984): Community Structure and the Niche,
Chapman and Hall, 58 p.
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Wildlife Sanctuary, Forktail 12: 107-11 7.
Howe, R.W., T. D. Howe & H.A. Ford (1981): Bird
distributions on small rain forests remnants in New
South Wales .Australian Midi. Res. 8: 637-652.
Hurlbert, S.H. (1971): The non-concept of species
diversity: A critic and alternative parameters. Ecology
52:577-586.
Jayson, E.A. (1994): Synecological and behavioural studies
on certain species of forest birds. Ph.D. Thesis.
University of Calicut, Calicut.
Johnsingh, A.J.T., N.H. Martin, J. Balasingh & V.
Chelladurai (1987): Vegetation and avifauna in a
thorn scrub habitat in South India. J. Tropical
Ecology 28:2234.
Johnsingh, A.J.T. & J. Joshua (1994): Avifauna in three
vegetation types on Mundanthurai plateau, South
India. J. Tropical Ecology 10: 323-335.
Karr, J.R. (1971): Structure of avian communities in
selected Panama and Illinois habitats. Ecol. Monogr.
47:207-233.
Katti, M.V. (1989): Bird communities of lower Dachigam.
Valley, Kashmir. M.Sc. dissertation, Saurashtra
University, Rajkot.
Landers, P.B. & J.A. MacMahon (1980): Guilds and
community organization: Analysis of an oak
woodland avifauna in Sonora, Mexico. Auk 97:
351-365.
Lovejoy, T.E. (1975): Bird diversity and abundance in
Amazon forest communities. Living Bird 75:127-191.
Ludwig, J.A. & J.F. Reynolds (1988): Statistical Ecology.
John Wiley and Sons. Pp. 337.
Magurran, A.E. (1988): Ecological Diversity and its
Measurement. Croom Helm Ltd, London.
Morrison, M.L., A. Kimberly & I.C. Timossi (1980): The
structure of a forest bird community during winter
and summer. Wilson Bull. 98: 214-230.
Pascal, J. P. (1988): Wet Evergreen Forest of the Western
Ghats of India, Ecology, Structure, Floristic
Composition and succession. Institute Francais de
Pondicherry, Pondicherry.
Pearson, D. (1977): A pantropical comparison of bird
community: Structure of six lowland rainforest sites.
Condor 79: 232-244.
Pramod, P., R.J. Ranjit Daniels, N.V. Joshi & Madhav
Gadgil (1997): Evaluating bird communities of
Western Ghats to plan for a biodiversity friendly
development, Current Science 73: 156-162.
Preston, F.W. (1948): The commonness and rarity of
species. Ecology 29: 254-283.
Preston, F.W. (1962): The canonical distribution of
commonness and rarity. Ecology 43: 185-215;
410-432.
Ramakrishnan, P. (1983): Environmental studies on the
birds of Malabar Forest. Ph.D. Thesis, University of
Calicut.
Rodgers, W.A. &H.S. Panwar (1989): Planning a Wildlife
Protected Area Network in India. Vol. 2. Wildlife
Institute of India. Dehra Dun.
Rosenberg, R. (1976): Benthic faunal dynamics during
succession following pollution abatement, in a
Swedish estuary. Oikos 27: 414-27.
Slocomb, J.B. Stauffer & K.L. Dickson (1977): On fitting
the truncated log-normal distribution to species
abundance data using maximum likelihood
estimation. Ecology 58: 693-696.
Sundaramoorthy, T. (1991): Ecology of terrestrial birds
in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur. Ph.D. Thesis,
University of Bombay.
Terborgh, L., S.K. Robinson, T.A. Parker III, Charles
A. Munn & N. Pierpont (1990): Structure and
organization of an Amazonian forest bird community.
Ecol. Monogr. 60: 213-238.
Thiollay, J.M. ( 1 986): Structure comparee du peuplement
avien dans trois sites de foret primaire en Guyan.
Revue d Ecologie la Terre et la Vie 4 1 : 59- 1 05.
Udvardy, M.D.R. (1975): A classification of the
biogeographical provinces of the world. IUCN
Occasional Paper. 18 IUCN, Gland, Morges.
Usher, M.B. (1986): Wildlife conservation evaluation:
Attributes, criteria and values. In: Wildlife
Conservation Evaluation. Chapman and Hall,
London, pp. 3-44.
■ ■ ■
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NEW DESCRIPTIONS
A NEW SPECIES OF ACHLYA (PHYCOMYCETES) FROM RIVERINE WATERS1
R.V. Gandhe and M.J. Desale2
( With one text-figure)
Key words: Riverine fungi, Aquatic phycomycetes, A. punensis sp. nov.
Aquatic fungi were isolated from riverine waters for extensive studies. The genus Achlya was
found dominant with 14 species. Achlya punensis is proposed as a new species and compared
with allied species.
Introduction
During our extensive studies on the riverine
aquatic fungi for the last three years, 1 1 genera
and 35 species were isolated from the rivers Mula
and Mutha, Pune, Maharashtra State, India. The
species of Saprolegniaceae, Blastocladiaceae and
Peronosporaceae were most frequent in their
occurrence and dominance throughout the year.
The genus Achlya dominated among all the genera
with its 14 species. The taxon proposed here as a
new species of Achlya , A. punensis, is close to
A. conspicua in some characters, but differs
drastically in several important characters.
Material and Methods
Preliminary survey of the rivers Mula and
Mutha was carried out for selection of suitable
water sampling stations. The water sampling
stations were established on both the rivers for
collecting the water samples regularly every
fortnight. Aquatic fungi were isolated from
different water samples by baiting technique
(Butler, 1907).
Achlya punensis R.V. Gandhe
and M. J. Desale sp.nov. (Figs 1-9)
Growth in culture moderately dense,
developing in 1 to 2 cm colony on baits within a
'Accepted January, 1 998
Tost Graduate Research Centre, Botany Department,
Modem College, Pune 41 1 005, Maharashtra, India.
week. Hyphae stout at the base up to 71.0 pm
thick, with average hyphal thickness ranging
from 14.2 to 56.6 pm, tapering at the free ends,
sparingly branched.
Zoosporangia abundant, terminal,
cylindrical to slightly broader than hyphae,
sometimes filiform, 14.2 to 42.6 pm x 142 to
511.2 pm. Zoospores spherical, 12.8 pm in
diameter, liberated achlyoid type, forming
clumps at the exit pore for a short time, thereafter
settled at the bottom.
Gemmae distinctly swollen, mostly
terminal or intercalary, often segmented,
elongated, functioning as sporangia, or bearing
sex organs, sometimes irregularly branched.
Oogonia abundant, spread over the entire culture,
from the basal hyphae to the free ends, spherical,
34.22 to 96.6 pm in diameter, mostly 49.9 to
56.0 pm in diameter, borne on short stalks,
sometimes stalks slightly longer than the
diameter of the oogonia. Eggs 1 to 6, mostly 2 to
4 per oogonium, 28.08 to 34.32 pm in diameter,
eccentric, with a single large oil drop at maturity
15.6 to 18.7 pm in diameter, immature eggs
contain many small oil droplets. Oogonial wall
unpitted, but sometimes inconspicuously pitted
at the contact portion of the antheridium.
Antheridia abundant, mostly monoclinous,
androgynous, often with a long slender stalk, very
rarely diclinous, antheridial branches usually
developed from the main hyphae, antheridia on
all the oogonia, at least 2 to 3 antheridia per
oogonium, developing conspicuous foot-like
projections, penetrating into oogonia.
Isolated from the rivers Mula and Mutha
400
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Fig. 1-9: Achlya punensis Gandhe and Desale sp.nov. 1. Terminal typical sporangia, 2. Zoospores,
3. Gemma developing into oogonium and monoclinous antheridia; note terminal sporangium,
4. Very long stalked oogonium with monoclinous androgynous antheridium. Note the antheridial cell
projections, 5. Segmented and rod shaped gemmae, 6. Oogonium showing monoclinous antheridia,
7. Oogonium with monoclinous androgynous branched antheridia, 8. Oogonium with diclinous antheridia,
9. Oogonium with curved stalk and diclinous antheridium.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
401
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
July 1995, Pune, Maharashtra, India.
Latin Diagnosis: Mycelium densum; hypis
ramosis porrectis us que ad 1-2 cm in diametrum;
hyphis primariis in basi 71 .0 pm dim; sporangiis
copiosis, longa, cylindrica, 14.2-42.6 pm x 142-
511.2 pm; Zoosporiis 12.8 pm in dia^hrum,
apice dehiscentibus e* rectiS; Ejectio sporarum
typirg "^7ierjs Gemmae copiosae, variis,
plerumque in a equaliter formatis. Oogoniis
copiosis, et globosis, 34.22-96.6 pm in
diametrum, natis ex primariis hyphis in ramulis
lateralibus.
Oosporiis numero 1-6, plerumque 2-4,
28.08-34.32 p in diametrum, excentricis guttulis
aleosis excentricis dispositis, 15.6-18.7 p in
diametrum.
Antheridis copiosis, monoclinobus out
androgenibus, persistentibus, antheridio
digitalibus prominentiis affixo, 2-3 pro quoque
oogonio.
Hab. ad terram humosam in rivi Mula,
Mutha, July 1995.
Discussion
The present species showed some
resemblance to Achlya conspicuci Coker (1923),
especially in the case of monoclinous and
androgynous antheridia and eccentric condition
of oospores in the oogonium. However, it differs
drastically from A. conspicua in several other
important characters such as hyphal thickness,
sporangial diameter, oogonial oospore number
and diameter, and frequently developed
antheridial branches. The basal hyphae in the
present species are not stout as in A. conspicua
Refer
Butler, E. J. (1907): An account of the genus Pythium
and some Chytridiaceae. Hem. Dept. Agri. India,
bot. ser., /: 1-160.
Coker, W. C. (1923): The Saprolegniaceae with notes on
other water moulds. University of North Carolina
Press, Chapel Hill, North Carolina.
but sometimes reached up to 71.0 pm and were
sparingly branched. Zoosporangia in the present
isolate were larger than, that in A. conspicua and
were often bontc at the tip of the gemmae, which
functioned as zoosporangia. The most striking
feature of the present species is the development
of sex organs, both antheridia and oogonia,
from the gemmae or the stalk of the gemmae.
This unusual pattern was not observed in
A. conspicua or in any other allied species of
Achlya. Oogonia in the present species were
abundant, spherical and 32.32 pm x 93.6 pm in
diameter, whereas oogonia were moderately
abundant, spherical to oval, 45 pm to 120 pm
in diameter in A. conspicua. The number of
oospores was also very high, up to 40 in
A. conspicua, which was much less, only 1 to 6,
in the present species. The species described has
monoclinous, androgynous, antheridial
branches, which are longer and more frequent
than in A. conspicua and other known allied
species of Achlya (Coker 1923, Johnson 1956,
Sparrow 1960). All the above mentioned
characters certainly set apart this species from
A. conspicua and other allied species. We,
therefore, propose a new species of Achlya , and
name it A. punensis.
Etymology: The species is named punensis
as it was collected from a river in Pune.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Principal, Modem College,
Pune, for encouragement and the Head,
Botany Department, for providing laboratory
facilities.
ENC ES
Johnson, T. W. Jr. ( 1 956): The genus Achlya morphology
and taxonomy. The University of Michigan Press,
Ann. Arbor Michigan, 1 80 pp.
Sparrow, F. K. (1960). Aquatic Phycomycetes. The
University of Michigan Press, Ann. Arbor
Michigan, pp. 1 187.
402
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(3), DEC. 2000
THREE NEW SPECIES OF PTEROMALIDAE (HYMENOPTERA:
CHALCIDOIDEA) FROM INDIA1
P.M. SURESHAN2 AND T.C. NARENDRAN3
( With fifteen text-figures)
Key words: Hymenoptera, Chalcidoidea, Pteromalidae, Cryptoprymna, Toxeumorpha, new species
Three new species of Pteromalidae (Hymenoptera : Chalcidoidea), namely, Cryptoprymna
elongata , C. Indiana and Toxeumorpha minuta from India are described and illustrated. A key to
the species of Cryptoprymna from India is provided.
Introduction
The paper deals with the descriptions of
three new species of Pteromalidae collected from
Kerala, India. The genera Cryptoprymna Forster
and Toxeumorpha Girault, to which the new
species are assigned, are being reported here for
the first time from India.
Terminology followed in this paper is based
on Graham (1969). In addition, the antennal funi-
cular segments are numbered from FI to F6 and
the gastral tergites from T1 to T6, beginning with
the first after petiole and the last before epipygium.
The following abbreviations are used: Ocellar
ocular distance OOL, Posterior ocellar distance
POL, Submarginal vein SMV, Marginal vein MV,
Post-marginal vein PMV, and Stigmal vein STV.
The types are deposited in the collection
of the Zoological Survey of India, Calicut.
Genus Cryptoprymna Forster
Prosodes Walker 1833: 371, 374.
Type species: Prosodes ater Walker,
preoccupied by Prosodes Eschscholtz 1829.
Cryptoprymna Forster 1856: 52, 56, 59.
Replacement name for Prosodes Walker.
Cryptoprymnus Thomson 1878: 17, 22.
Cresson 1887: 75 (key). (Invalid emendation).
‘Accepted August 1 998
Zoological Survey of India,
Western Ghats Field Research Station,
Anniehall Road, Calicut 673 002, Kerala, India.
-'Department of Zoology, University of Calicut,
Calicut 673 635, Kerala, India.
Polycystelomorpha Girault 1915 (a): 340.
Type species Polycystelomorpha flavifemur
Girault, by original designation, Boucek 1988:
467: synonymy.
The genus contains six described species
C. atra (Walker 1833) and C. dixiana (Heydon
1988) from Nearctic, C. africanus (Boucek 1976)
from Southern Africa, C. brama (Motschulsky
1 863) from Southern Asia, C. ci'ucigera (Boucek
1988) from Papua New Guinea and
C. australiensis (Girault 1913) from Queensland.
Two new species C. elongata and C indiana are
being added here to the genus from India.
Key to Indian species of cryptoprymna forster
1. Antenna (Fig. 2) slender, with FI as long as
F2, scape a little longer than eye, clava 2x as
long as wide; MV length 1.3x PMV; gastral
petiole (Fig. 1) slender, length 2.9x width
elongata sp. nov.
Antenna (Fig. 8) stout with FI shorter than F2,
scape little shorter than eye, clava 1 .6x as long
as wide; MV shorter, as long as PMV; gastral
petiole shorter, length 2.3x width
indiana sp. nov.
1. Cryptoprymna elongata sp. nov.
(Figs 1-6)
Female: Length 1 .8-2.0 mm (Holotype 2.0
mm). Body black. Antennae testaceous with clava
darker. Legs with coxae concolorous with thorax,
remainder yellow, with tips of tarsi pale brown;
tegulae pale brown; wings hyaline; veins pale
brown.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
403
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Figs 1-6: Cryptoprymna elongata sp. nov. (Female) 1. Body in profile; 2. Antenna; 3. Forewing; 4. Head in
front view; 5. Propodeum in dorsal view; 6. Male body in profile.
7-1 1. Cryptoprymna indiana sp. nov. (Female) 7. Body in profile; 8. Antenna; 9. Forewing;
1 0. Head in front view; 1 1 . Propodeum in dorsal view.
Figs 12-15: Toxeumorpha minuta sp. nov. (Female) 12. Body in dorsal view; 13. Head in profile with
antenna; 14. Forewing; 15. Male body in profile.
404
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Head: (Figs 1 & 4) uniformly and finely
reticulate with scattered white hairs. In dorsal
view width 2x length; temple moderately
converging, length 0.5x eye length; POL 1.4x
OOL. In front view, head width 1.3x height;
anterior margin of clypeus slightly emarginate;
malar space length 0.5x eye length; eyes
separated by 1.5x their length. Antenna (Fig. 2)
inserted just above lower margin of eyes; scape
reaching median ocellus, length 1 .3x eye length;
pedicel plus flagellum as long as head width;
clava a little longer than three preceding
segments combined.
Thorax: (Fig. 1) pronotal collar margined
anteriorly; anterior half, finely reticulate and
posterior half shiny. Mesoscutum finely
reticulate, width 1.5x length. Scutellum similarly
sculptured as on mesoscutum, length 1 .2x width,
frenal area shiny. Propodeum (Fig. 5) width 2x
length, lateral parts finely reticulate. Forewing
(Fig. 3) with basal vein setate. Relative lengths
of SMV, MV, PMV, and STV as 24.5: 15: 12.5:8.
Gaster: (Fig. 1) length 1.5x width; petiole
dorsally reticulate, laterally with longitudinal
rugae, length 2.9x width.
Male: (Fig. 6) Length 1.7 mm. Generally
resembles female but differing in having slender
antennae with elongate funicular segments and
clava not wider than funicle and in the nature of
gaster.
Holotype: Female: india. Kerala: Idukki
(Kulamavu), 1 .xii. 1988, Coll. P.M. Sureshan.
Allotype: Male: Kerala: Palghat (Mukali),
lO.xii. 1987, Coll. P.M. Sureshan.
Paratypes: 1 Female, Kerala, Silent
Valley, 30.xii.1988, 1 Female, Kerala, Wynaad
(Manantody), 22. ii. 1988 (Coll. P.M. Sureshan).
Biology: Not known.
Remarks: This species resembles C. atra
Walker in having fore wing with basal cell and
vein setate, patch of setae ventrally behind MV;
occiput concave in dorsal view, bare petiole,
shorter propodeum, slender antennae and longer
gaster. But it differs from atra in having a longer
petiole (length 2.9x width), forewing with MV
longer than PMV and 0.6x SMV. In atra the
petiole is shorter (length 1 .9x width), forewing
with MV shorter than PMV and only about 0.4x
SMV. It closely resembles C. indiana sp. nov.,
and the characters for separating it from indiana
are given in the key to Indian species.
2. Cryptoprymna indiana sp. nov.
(Figs 7-11)
Female: Length 1.7- 1.8 mm (Holotype
1.8 mm), body black; gaster brownish ventrally.
Antennae testaceous, clava a little darker at tip.
Coxae concolorous with thorax, legs otherwise
testaceous with tips of tarsi brown. Tegulae light
brown. Wings hyaline, veins pale brown.
Head: (Figs 7 & 10) uniformly and finely
reticulate with several black bristles on vertex.
In dorsal view, width 2x length; occiput concave;
temple length 0.5x eye length; POL 1.4x OOL.
In front view, head width 1.2x height; genae
depressed considerably; malar space length 0.5x
eye length; clypeus produced, anterior margin
almost straight. Eyes separated by 1.5x their
length. Antennae (Fig. 8) inserted slightly above
lower margin of eyes; scape filiform, a little
shorter than eye, not reaching front ocellus;
pedicel plus flagellum length equal to head width;
anelli transverse, equal in length; clava as long
as 3.5 preceding segments combined.
Thorax: (Fig. 7) pronotal collar anteriorly
margined, finely reticulate on anterior half and
shiny on posterior half. Mesoscutum moderately
reticulate, width 2.9x length. Scutellum with
broad reticulation, frenal area shiny. Propodeum
(Fig. 11) with median area moderately and
closely reticulate, lateral parts finely reticulate,
median and lateral carinae complete, spiracles
small, oval, callus with a tuft of setae anteriorly.
Prepectus, mesopleuron and metapleuron finely
reticulate. Forewing (Fig. 9) with basal vein
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
405
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
setate; costal cell hairy on the upper half;
speculum open below. Relative lengths of SMV,
MV, PMV and STV as 22:1 1.5:1 1:6.5.
Gaster: (Fig. 7) length 1.5x width; petiole
length 2.3x width, dorsally reticulate, laterally
with very close longitudinal rugae.
Male: Not known
Holotype: Female: India: Kerala: Peechi,
5 .ii. 1 989, Coll. P.M. Sureshan.
Paratypes: 2 Females, Kerala: Silent
Valley, 9.xii.l987; 2 Females, Kerala: Palghat
(Anakkaty), 1 2 .xii. 1987; 1 Female, Kerala,
Malampuzha, 11. xii. 1987, Coll. P.M. Sureshan.
Biology: Not known.
Remarks: This species closely resembles
C. elongata sp. nov. but can be distinguished
from elongata by the characters given in the key.
It also resembles C. atra in having setate basal
vein, bare and shorter petiole, but differs in
having a shorter antennal clava (1.6x as long as
wide), shorter gaster and longer MV. In atra
antennal clava more slender (2.1 ±0.2 lx as long
as wide), gaster elongate and MV shorter.
Genus Toxeumorpha Girault
Toxeumorpha Girault 1915b: 195. Type
species: Toxeumorpha nigra Girault, by original
designation.
Nigricolana Boucek 1976: 16-17. Type
species: Trigonogastra nigricola Ferriere, by
original designation. Boucek 1988: 443.
Synonymy.
Girault (1915b) erected the genus
Toxeumorpha with type species T. nigra Girault
from Australia. Boucek (1988) synonymised
Nigricolana Boucek under Toxeumorpha. Before
synonymising Nigricolana under Toxeumorpha ,
Boucek et al. (1979) transferred the species
Trigonogastra megacephala Waterston 1915 to
Nigricolana. Since Nigricolana was later
synonymised under Toxeumorpha, the species
Nigricolana megacephala (Waterston) should
now be known as Toxeumorpha megacephala
(Waterston) comb. nov. Presently there are three
described species under this genus: T. nigra
Girault (1915b) from Australia, T. nigricolana
(Ferriere, 1936) from Africa and T. megacephala
(Waterston, 1915) from Ceylon. The genus has
restricted distribution and had not been reported
from India so far.
Toxeumorpha minuta sp. nov.
(Figs 12-15)
Female: (Figs 12-14) length 1.2 mm. Body
black; eyes brownish-black. Antennae brown
with scape paler. Legs with hind coxae
concolorous with thorax; fore and mid coxae
blackish brown, remainder of legs testaceous,
except fore femur and tips of tarsi brown. Tegulae
brown; wings hyaline, veins pale brown.
Head: (Figs. 12 & 13) uniformly moderate
reticulate. In dorsal view, width 1.8x length;
temples round, converging, length 0.4x eye
length; POL 1 .4x OOL; occiput convex. In front
view, head width 1.2x height; clypeus with a
median angulate tooth; eyes separated by 1.3x
their length. Antennae (Fig. 13) inserted along
with lower margin of eyes; scape not reaching
median ocellus, a little shorter than eye;
combined length of pedicel plus flagellum 0.8x
head width; pedicel longer than F 1 ; third anellus
as long as first and second combined; funicle
segments quadrate; pubescence moderate and
sparse on flagellum; clava a little shorter than
three preceding segments combined.
Thorax: (Fig. 12) length 1.5x width,
uniformly and moderately reticulate with black
bristles dorsally except on propodeum; pronotal
collar not margined, narrower than mesoscutum.
Mesoscutum width 2.4x length; notaular grooves
complete. Scutellum convex, without frenum.
Propodeum width 2.6x length; nucha moderate;
median area similarly sculptured as on scutellum,
lateral parts finely reticulate; plicae complete;
callus with similar black bristles as on other areas
406
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC 2000
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
of thorax; spiracles very small. Prepectus broad,
triangular, finely reticulate. Mesopleuron and
metapleuron moderately reticulate. Fore wing
(Fig. 14) length 2.3x width; marginal fringe
moderately long; discal pubescence small and
sparse; basal vein setate; speculum open below.
Relative lengths of SMV, MV, PMV, and STV as
15:8:6:3.5.
Gaster: (Fig. 12) length 1 .4x width; petiole
finely reticulate with a median ridge, embraced
by the extension of first stemite; T1 and T2 larger
covering most of the gaster; hypopygium
reaching beyond middle of the gaster.
Male: (Fig. 15) length 1.1 mm. Resembles
female, but differs in having antenna with scape
almost reaching median ocellus, flagellum
covered with long hairs, FI anelliform and gaster
shorter with a longer petiole.
Holotype: Female: India: Kerala, Calicut
University Campus, (-).v.l989, Coll. P.M.
Sureshan.
Allotype: Male, same data as that of
holotype.
Remarks: This species resembles
Refer
Boucek, Z. (1976): African Pteromalidae (Hymenoptera)
new taxa, synonymies and combinations. J. ent. Soc.
Sth.Afr.39: 9-31.
Boucek, Z. (1988): Australasian Chalcidoidea
(Hymenoptera) C.A.B. International, Wallingford,
U.K.: 1-831.
Boucek, Z., B.R. Subbarao & S.I. Farooqi (1979): A
preliminary review of Pteromalidae (Hymenoptera) of
India and adjacent countries. Oriental. Ins. 12: 433-
467.
Ferriere, C. ( 1 936): The parasites of the coffee leaf miners
( Leucoptera spp.) in Africa. Bull. ent. Res. 27: 477-
491.
Forster, A. (1856): Hymenopterologische Studien, 2.
Chalcididae und proctotrupii, Aachen.
Girault, A. A. (1913): New genera and species of
Chalcidoid Hymenoptera from North Queensland -
Arch. Naturgesch. 79, A.H. 6, 46-5 1 .
Girault, A. A. (1915a): Australian Hymenoptera
Chalcidoidea VI. Mem. Qd. Mus. (Suppl.) 3: 313-346.
T. megacephala (Waterston) in general
characters, but differs in having antenna with 3
anelli and 5 funicular segments in female, FI as
long as F2, forewing length 2.3x width with PMV
more than half that of MV and distinctly longer
than STV. In megacephala female antenna with
2 anelli and 6 funicular segments, FI shorter than
F2, forewing length less than 2x width with PMV
half as long as MV and only slightly longer than
STV. The male of this species also resembles T.
megacephala male but differs in having antenna
with FI very short, anelliform, pedicel distinctly
longer than wide ( megacephala male possesses
an antenna with FI not anelliform and pedicel
hardly longer than wide).
Acknowledgements
The first author is grateful to the Director,
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta and the
Officer-in-charge, Zoological Survey of India,
Calicut for providing facilities and encouragement.
We also thank the Head of the Department of
Zoology, University of Calicut for facilities.
iNCES
Girault, A. A. (1915b): Australian Hymenoptera
Chalcidoidea VIII. The family Miscogasteridae with
descriptions of new genera and species. Mem. Qd. Mus.
4: 185-202.
Graham, M.W.R. de V. (1969): The Pteromalidae of North
Western Europe (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea). Bull.
Br. Mus. nat. Hist. Ent. Suppl. 16: 1-908.
Heydon, S.L. (1988): A review of the nearctic species of
Cryptoprymna Forster with the description of a new
genus Polstonia (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) Proc.
Ent. Soc. Wash. 90(1): 1-11.
Motschulsky, V. De. (1863): Essai d’un catalogue des
insects de File Ceylan, Byull. Mosk. Obshch Ispyt. Prir.
36(3): 1-153.
Thomson, C.G. (1878): Hymenoptera Scandinaviae, 5.
Pteromalus (Svederus) continuatio. Lund.
Walker, F. (1833): Monographia Chalcidum. Art. XLIII
Entomol. Mag. 1: 367-384.
Waterston, J.C. ( 1 9 1 5): New species of Chalcidoidea from
Ceylon. Bull. Ent. Res. 5: 325-342.
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
407
GARRA ELONGATA , A NEW SPECIES OF THE SUBFAMILY GARRINAE
FROM MANIPUR, INDIA (CYPRINIDAE, CYPRINIFORMES)1
Waikhom Vishwanath and Laishram Kosygin2
( With one plate and one text-figure)
Key words: Garra elongata, new species, Manipur, gotyla complex
Garra elongata sp. nov. is described from a hill stream of the Chindwin basin in Manipur, India.
It is characterised by 39-40 lateral line scales, 13 predorsal scales, 2 lA scale rows between lateral
line and pelvic fin origin, a transverse groove on snout tip, a weakly developed proboscis, and
position of vent situated midway between pelvic and anal fin origins. Further, it is characterised
by a transverse black bar on the dorsal fin and a longitudinal black streak on median rays of
caudal fin. G. elongata is considered as a member of gotyla complex.
Introduction
Menon (1964) reviewed the genus Garra
Hamilton 1822, and recognised 37 species. It is
chiefly characterised by a suctorial disc on the
ventral surface of the head, just behind the mouth.
Most species of this genus inhabit rapid running
waters. They adapt to the swift current by
clinging to the substratum with their suctorial
disc and horizontally placed paired fins (Menon,
1964). They are widely distributed in Asia and
Africa (Talwar and Jhingran, 1991).
In Manipur, fishes of the genus Garra are
distributed both in the Brahmaputra and
Chindwin basins. Hora (1921) described G.
naganensis from Senapati stream, Brahmaputra
basin, Manipur. Vishwanath and Sarojnalini
(1988) described G. manipurensis from the
Manipur river (Chindwin basin). Vishwanath
(1993) reported the occurrence of nine species
of Garra in Manipur, namely, G. gotyla gotyla
(Gray 1832), G. nasuta (McClelland 1838), G.
rupecula (McClelland 1839), G. lissorhynchus
(McClelland 1842), G. gravelyi (Annandale
1919), G. kempi Hora 1921, G. naganensis Hora
1921, G. manipurensis Vishwanath & Sarojnalini
1988, and G. litanensis sp. nov. During our
studies on the fish diversity of Ukhrul district,
'Accepted February, 1998
department of Life Sciences, Manipur University,
Canchipur 795 003, Manipur, India.
Manipur (Chindwin basin), four undescribed
specimens of Garra were collected in November,
1997. They are described herein as new species.
Material and Methods
Measurements and counts followed Menon
(1964). Measurements were made with a dial
calliper to the nearest 0.1 mm and expressed in
percentage of standard length (SL) or head length
(HL). The type specimens of the new species are
deposited in the Manipur University Museum of
Fishes (MUMF).
Garra elongata sp. nov.
(Plate 1, Fig. 1)
Holotype: Regn no. MUMF 2311,
94.9 mm SL; Locality: india: Manipur:
Chindwin basin: hill stream near Tolloi, 25° 12f
N, 94° 20' E, c. 2,016 m above msl; Coll. L.
Kosygin, 12.xi.1997.
Paratypes: Regn no. MUMF 2308-2310,
3 ex., 77.9-85.5 mm SL; collection data same
as holotype.
Material examined: Garra gravelyi :
MUMF 64/7, 1 ex.; India: Manipur, Lokchao
river; W. Viswanath, 21. vi. 1984. - MUMF 2273,
1 ex.; India: Manipur, Wanze stream at
Khamsom, 94° 32’ E, 25° 12' N; L. Kosygin,
7.vii.l997. G. gotyla gotyla : MUMF 66/1-2, 2
ex.; India: Manipur, Lokchao river; 12.viii.1984.
408
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Vishwanath, Waikhom et ale Garra elongata sp. nov.
Plate 1
Fig. 1: Lateral view of Garra elongata sp. nov. (MUMF 231 1 - holotype, 94.9 mm SL). Scale bar = 10 mm.
Fig. 2: Dorsal view of G. elongata (holotype).
Scale bar = 10 mm.
Fig. 3: Ventral view of G. elongata (MUMF 2308
paratype, 80.0 mm SL). Scale bar = 10 mm.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
409
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Fig. 4: Comparison of percentage distance between vent and anal fin origins, in the distance between pelvic
and anal fin origins of the Garra gotyla species complex.
Garra gotyla stenorhynchus : ZSI (Zoological
Survey of India, Calcutta) F 1748, lex.; India:
Moyar river at Nilgiris; 15. iv. 1955. G. kempt
MUMF 2251-2254, 4 ex.; India: Manipur, Wanze
stream at Khamsom; L. Kosygin, 30. iv. 1995.
G. litanensis : MUMF 68/1, 1 ex., type; India:
Manipur, Litan stream at Litan; W. Viswanath,
16.iii.1986. MUMF 69/1-3, 3 ex.; paratypes;
India: Manipur, Litan stream at Litan;
W. Viswanath, 12. ii. 1988. G. nasuta : MUMF
2098, 1 ex.; India: Manipur, Chalou river at
Jessami 94° 35' E, 25° 38' N, L. Kosygin
2.vi. 1994, MUMF 2270-2272 3 ex. India,
Manipur, Wanze stream at Khamsom; L.
Kosygin, 7.vii.l997.
Diagnosis
A species of Garra , distinguished from its
congeners by the following combination of
characters: 39-40 lateral line scales, 13 predorsal
scales, 2Vi scale rows between lateral line and
pelvic fin origin, transverse groove on snout,
weakly developed proboscis, no scales on chest,
7 branched dorsal fin rays, 11-12 branched
pectoral fin rays and position of vent situated
midway between pelvic and anal fin origins. It
is also distinct in having a dorsal fin with a
transverse black bar, and caudal fin with a
longitudinal black band in the middle (Table 1).
Description
General body shape and appearance are
shown in Plate 1 Fig. 1. Dorsal fin rays I, 7 (last
ray branched at base); pectoral fin rays I, 11-12;
pelvic fin rays I, 8; anal fin rays I, 5; caudal fin
rays 10+9 (17 branched); lateral line scales 39-
40; lateral transverse scales VA between dorsal
fin origin and lateral line and VA between lateral
line and pelvic fin origin, predorsal scales 13.
The measurements in mean and ranges (in
parentheses) are given here. Body elongate and
subcylindrical, depth 18.5 (17.4-19.2)% of SL.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC 2000
411
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC 2000
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Head moderately compressed, flattened
ventrally, length 21.8 (21.1-22.4)%, height at
occiput 14.1 (13.1-14.8)%, head width 17.4
(16.4-18.4)% of SL. Mouth inferior, transverse
with thick and fleshy lips. Upper lip fimbriated.
Suctorial disc well developed, its length 69.2
(65.6-73.8)% of its width. Gill opening restricted
to sides. Snout rounded with a deep transverse
groove at the tip. Proboscis weakly developed.
Tip of snout in front of nostril studded with many
homy tubercles. Snout length 10.4 (9.8-10.8)%
of SL, 47.6 (45.4-50.0)% of HL. Interorbital
space slightly convex 10.5 (10.3-10.6)% of SL.
Eye diameter 3.6 (3. 3-4.0)% of SL, not visible
from ventral surface. Height of caudal peduncle
12.1 (1 1.7-12.8)% ofSL, caudal peduncle length
19.0 (17.8-20.8)% of SL. Barbels two pairs, one
rostral and one maxillary, both more or less equal
to eye diameter. Scales of moderate size, absent
on chest, poorly developed on belly.
Dorsal fin base length 47.1 (46.7-47.7)%,
height 18.8 (18.0-19.2)% of SL. Predorsal length
47.1 (46.7-47.7)% of SL. Pectoral fin almost
equals dorsal fin height, its length 18.3 (18.0-
19.2)% of SL, 84.3 (81.4-86.0)% of HL. Pelvic
fin shorter than pectoral fin, not reaching vent,
its length 16.6 (16.0-17.1)% of SL. Caudal fin
forked, its length 19.9 (19.0-20.5)% of SL. Vent
in middle of pelvic and anal fin origins, distance
from vent to anal fin origin 48.8 (47.5-51.2)%
of the distance from pelvic to anal fin origins.
Coloration: Dark greenish -grey; dorsally
black; ventral surface pale white. A broad, dark
grey longitudinal stripe from gill opening to caudal
fin base. Scales on lateral sides of body orange.
Dorsal fin with a broad, transverse black bar near
the free margin. Caudal fin with a black,
longitudinal mark on median rays (black colour
appears on 8th- 1 2th branched rays). All the fins
orange.
Preserved specimens: Body dark grey,
darker on the back. Black area on dorsal and
caudal fins as in live specimens.
Etymology: Named after its greater
standard length in relation to the body depth
compared to other representatives of the gotyla
complex.
Distribution: india: Manipur, Ukhrul
district, Tolloi (Chindwin basin)
Discussion
Garra elongata has a close phylogenetic
relationship with species of the gotyla complex
in having tubercles and a proboscis on snout.
However, it is easily distinguished from
G. gravelyi, G. gotyla gotyla , G. gotyla
stenorhyncus , G. litanensis and G. nasuta in
having more lateral line scales (39-40 vs. 32-
35), more predorsal scales (13 vs. 8-10), fewer
scale rows between lateral line and pelvic fin
origin (2.5 vs. 3.5), absence of scales on chest
and more anteriorly placed vent. Further, the
new species is distinct in having (i) a distinct
transverse black bar on dorsal fin and (ii)
absence of black spots at the base of its branched
rays.
The new species is also similar to species
of yunnanensis complex in respect of the number
of lateral line scales, number of predorsal scales
and more anteriorly placed vent. Further, it is
nearer to G. kempi in having the vent in the
middle of pelvic and anal fin origins. However,
it is easily distinguished from G. kempi by a deep
transverse groove on its snout, weakly developed
tuberculated proboscis on the snout, distinct black
bar on the dorsal fin, longitudinal black band on
the median rays of caudal fin and fewer scale
rows between lateral line and pelvic fin origin
(2.5 vs 3.5).
Menon (1964) considered gradual shifting
of vent forward and development of proboscis
on snout as interesting adaptations of Garra to
rapid running waters, which are of great
taxonomic significance within the genus.
Vishwanath (1993) pointed out that in
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
413
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
lissorhynchus and yunnanensis complexes,
which do not possess a proboscis, the vent has
shifted far forward of the anal fin, whereas in
the gotyla complex, where a proboscis is present,
the vent is not far forward. Thus, the new species
appears to be more adapted to rapid running
waters than any other member of the species
Refer
Annandale, N . ( 1 9 1 9) : Notes on freshwater fishes mostly
from the Satara and Poona Districts. Rec. Indian
Mus. 16: 125-138.
Gray, J.E. (1832): Illustrations of Indian Zoology, London
1:88, fig. 3.
Hamilton, F.B. (1822): An account of the fishes found in
the River Ganges and its branches. Archibald
Constable, Edinburgh, 405 pp., pis 39.
Hora, S.L. (1921a): Indian cyprinoid fishes belonging to
the genus Garra with notes on related species from
other countries. Rec. Indian Mus. 22 : 633-687, pis.
24-26.
Hora, S.L. (1921b): Fish and fisheries of Manipur with
some observations on those of the Naga Hills. Rec.
Indian Mus. 22: 165-214.
McClelland, J. (1838): Observations on six new species
of Cyprinidae with an outline of a new classification
of the family. J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 7(2): 941-948.
McClelland, J. (1839): Indian Cyprinidae. Asiatic. Res.
complexes in the genus.
Acknowledgement
We are grateful to the University Grants
Commission Special Assistance Programme for
financial assistance.
; n c e s
79:217-465 pis. 37-54.
McClelland, J. (1842): On the freshwater fishes collected
by William Griffith, Esq., F.L.S., Madras Medical
Service during his travels under the orders of the
Supreme Government of India, from 1 833 to 1 842.
Calcutta J. nat. Hist. 2: 560-589.
Menon, A.G.K. ( 1 964): Monograph of the cyprinid fishes
of the genus Garra Hamilton, Mem. Indian Mus.
14(4): 173-260.
Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of
India and adjacent countries. Oxford & IBH Publ.
Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Vol. 1: 1-541.
Vishwanath, W. (1993): On a collection of fishes of the
genus Garra Hamilton from Manipur, India with
description of a new species. J. Freshwater Biol.
5(1): 59-68.
Vishwanath, W. & Ch. Sarojnaljni (1988): A new cyprinid
fish, Garra manipurensis, from Manipur, India.
Japanese J. Ichthyol. 35(2): 124-126.
414
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
REVIEWS
1. PRIMATES OF NORTHEAST INDIA by Arun Srivastava. Megadiversity
Press, Bikaner 1999. Pp. 208, (21.5 x 14 cm). Paperback price Rs. 250/-.
Mountainous terrain, dense jungle,
incongenial climate coupled with political
instability and wide lingual diversity, are the
salient features of the northeast region of India.
Notwithstanding these daunting facts, the author
has spent considerable time and effort in
conducting extensive field studies to provide us
with detailed information on the primate species
observed in this region. The author has also
sought to illustrate the socio-political scenario
of the region, thus providing an invaluable
source of information to the discerning reader.
The book begins with a chapter on the
history of northeast India. The reader is informed
about the political state of this region, through
ancient history, till the formation of seven
northeastern states of India. Various aspects like
lingual and racial diversity have been explored.
The description of the annexation of this region
by the British is too detailed and complicated.
Since the reader of this book will be interested
in primates, extensive details of history seem
irrelevant and unrelated to primates.
The reader is then introduced to the people
and ethnographic affinities of the 7 states of this
region. Here, the author goes through a brief
description of each state mentioning its latitudes
and longitudes, climatic conditions, and also the
ethnic diversity of the population. Thus, we get
a clear picture of the human neighbours and the
environmental conditions faced by the primates.
It is from the third chapter that the author
shows his mettle as a researcher. Forest types
are discussed, accompanied by detailed lists of
the floristic composition of the region. The lists
mention scientific names.
The succeeding chapters introduce
primates in general and deal with the various
aspects of primate life like habitat, food and a
complete profile of each of the northeast Indian
primate species. Each of these chapters is filled
with interesting and informative data. The author
discusses primate diet and food selection in
relation to the surrounding flora. The description
of each tree is accompanied by a diagram which
helps in its field identification. A very thoughtful
and appreciated gesture.
The species-wise profile of each primate
has been made very meticulously. The use of
maps showing the range and habitat of each
primate is very helpful. Throughout the book,
the author uses lucid writing, which succeeds in
making our education about primates of northeast
India an interesting experience.
The author ends the book on a sombre note,
mentioning the conservation problems faced by
primate habitats and ranges. He also shows the
alarming trend of most primates attaining the
status of highly endangered species or data
deficient species, bringing home the point that a
lot needs to be done if we are to protect our
northeast Indian primates. All in all, a must read
for primate conservationists, researchers and
even nature enthusiasts.
■ MEGHANA GA VAND
2. GREEN POLITICS Eds Anil Agarwal, Sunita Narain and Anju Sharma.
Published by Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi, 1999. Pp. 409,
(26.5 x 21 .5 cm). Price not given.
The innocent age of conservation when the officially protect a species or a natural area, is
boldest and perhaps the only step taken was to over. Its place has been taken over by green
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(3), DEC. 2000
415
REVIEWS
politics. Due to pressure of human and livestock
populations on land, consumerism and
globalization, peoples’ rights, and rampant
corruption, the conservation movement has to
face numerous hurdles.
Green politics, the first in the series of
Global Environmental Negotiations, is a book
which should be read by every conservationist, just
to know the depth of complexities involved in
conservation these days. The book contains nine
chapters dealing with negotiations regarding
climatic changes, biodiversity convention,
persistent organic pollutants, timber trade, World
Trade Organization and Global Environment
Facility among others. It is full of data, tables,
graphs and box items highlighting important
events, regulations and issues. Cartoons, for which
the publications of CSE are now famous,
graphically convey the message of each chapter.
The editors have taken help from a number
of institutions, experts, books, reports and
research papers to compile each chapter. Names
of institutions and individuals are given in the
beginning, but they are missing in the chapter,
making it difficult to know who helped in writing
which chapter. Nevertheless, the book is a useful
reference guide, although a bit heavy and arcane
in places. I think this book should be present in
all the libraries of universities and institutions,
and it should be made compulsory reading for
our decision makers, because today the major
conservation battles are fought in the corridors
of power in Delhi, Montreal, Kyoto, Washington
etc. and not in some remote forested valleys and
neglected grasslands. The days of green politics
have arrived.
■ ASAD R. RAHMANI
3 . THE FRESHWATER FISHES OF THE INDIAN REGION by K.C. Jayaram.
Narendra Publishing House, Delhi, 1999. Pp. 551. 18 plates, (24 x 18 cm).
Hardbound price Rs. 995/-.
There have been several stalwarts in the
field of fish taxonomy who will be remembered
with awe and affection. Outstanding among them
are father figures of the 19th century like
Hamilton-Buchanan, J. McClelland, W. Sykes,
T.C. Jerdon, P. Bleeker and, of course, Francis
Day, whose monumental work of 778 pages
(Volume 1) and 195 plates (Volume 2) titled
THE FISHES OF INDIA, BEING A NATURAL HISTORY OF
THE FISHES KNOWN TO INHABIT THE SEAS AND FRESH
WATERS OF INDIA, BURMA AND CEYLON, but
affectionately abbreviated to fishes of india
encompassing 1 ,4 1 8 species, is still the mainstay
of every Indian ichthyologist.
In the 20th century, S.L. Hora stood tallest
among “fish people”, being followed, after his
death in 1955, by several others such as K.S.
Misra, R. Tilak, A.G.K. Menon, K.C. Jayaram,
P.K. Talwar and A. Jhingran. There are a few
others, but what separates the abovenamed is that
all of them, in addition to their scientific papers,
have also authored books on fish systematics and
thus, carved a niche for themselves.
Jayaram’ s earlier publication, the fresh-
water FISHES OF INDIA, PAKISTAN, BANGLADESH, BURMA
and SRi lanka — a handbook came out in 1981 .
He has now followed it up with the freshwater
fishes of the Indian region ( 1 999). Of course, he
has justified this repetition within 1 8 years by
explaining that this was necessitated in order to
update and incorporate changes in classification
and nomenclature. I was curious to find out if it
is just a re-hash of his earlier work or an elaborate
revision. When we compare his current
publication with the earlier one, we find an
increase from 475 pages (of his handbook) to 55 1
pages, and from 13 plates (plus a frontispiece)
to 18. The species covered have increased from
742 to 852, and the genera from 233 to 272.
His illustrations are of a high quality, and
416
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REVIEWS
the addition of Fig. 8 will help the novice. I could
detect a few, albeit minor mistakes which are
likely to confuse a beginner. In Fig. 2 A (for lateral
transverse scale count), the hatched scales are
from the lateral line to the posterior margin of
the pelvic fin. They should start from the
(anterior) base of this fin. They were shown
correctly in his handbook (page 8, Fig. 2A).
In Fig. 2B (length of base of adipose dorsal
fin), the line is drawn from the rounded tip of
this fin. It should be drawn from the posterior
base of the fin.
In Fig. 3B, V.F. is given as pelvic fin. For
the benefit of beginners, it should have been
explained that pelvic fin is also sometimes called
ventral fin. (Even in the glossary, these fins are
not mentioned.).
The statement on page 5, “Dividers should
have one point flat at right angles to the place of
operation and the other kept at a needle point.”
is not clear.
In Fig. 4B, while the description in the text
mentions “length” (of pectoral fin spine), the
figure legend mentions “height” (This was given
correctly in Fig. 5 C of the handbook).
On page 8, suborbital width is defined as
the least distance from the lowermost margin of
the orbit to suborbital or postorbital margin. In
the absence of an illustration or a definition of
sub- or pre-orbital margin, this is likely to confuse
the novice.
Again on page 8, interorbital shield is not
explained, even in the glossary.
In Fig. 9D, the gill rakers should have been
marked, to distinguish them from gill filaments
(for beginners).
It is a great relief to find that the new book
has been well edited, and that there are hardly
any mistakes; while reviewing Jayaram’s
handbook, I had detected well over 105 mistakes.
His scientific treatise is, as usual, meticulous, as
he has covered all the taxonomic changes up to
1998.
Unfortunately, though India has over 1,570
known marine fish species and only 930
inhabiting fresh waters, all the recent books on
fish systematics have been restricted to fresh-
water fishes. It is hoped that someone will now
come forward and bring out similar ones for
marine fishes. From 1878 (Day’s magnum opus )
to the 2 1 st century is a long time to wait for such
a work.
■ B.F. CHHAPGAR
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
1 . MALAYAN TREE SHREWS TUPAIA GLIS (DIARD) IN SIKKIM
During a visit to Sikkim, to appraise the
assessment of a river valley project from mid-
March to mid- April, 1999, 1 had the opportunity
of sighting tree shrews in the Teesta valley. The
almost completely uniform brown colour and
fluffy tail confirmed that they were Malayan tree
shrews ( Tupaia glis). Prater (the book of Indian
animals, 1993) defines the distribution range of
the species from Myanmar (Burma), through
Assam into the eastern Himalayas where it is
known to inhabit a wide range of altitudes about
350tol,830m and comments that they are easily
distinguished from Indian tree shrews ( Anathana
ellioti) by the lack of nearly white ventral surface
which is present in the latter. Subsequently, I had
an opportunity to visit Gangtok (1,850 m above
msl) during the period mentioned above, where
I saw a few more individuals of the Malayan tree
shrew.
Three races of Malayan tree shrews have
been described in India namely assamensis ,
versural and lepcha (Prater 1993). However,
identification of the race, of the individuals
sighted, was not possible during this visit. A
senior forest official, Mrs. Usha Ganguli-
Lachungpa of the Sikkim Forest Department,
confirmed that tree shrews are commonly found
in the state, but no research has been done on
the species so far.
Acknowledgements
I thank Mr. S.K. Mukherjee, Dr. Asha
Rajvanshi, Mr. Yogesh Dubey and Mr. K.S. Gopi
Sundar of Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun
and Mrs. Usha Ganguli-Lachungpa of Sikkim
Forest Department for various help.
February 2, 2000 PRAKASH DASH
VII H 21 7, Sharada Niwas,
Shailashree Vihar,
Bhubaneshwar 751 021, Orissa, India.
2. RANGE OVERLAP IN DHOLE CUON ALPINUS PALLAS
AND WOLF CANIS LUPUS LINN. (FAMILY: CANID AE), IN INDIA
We present here our observations on range
overlap of dhole (Cuon alpinus ) and wolf ( Canis
lupus) in certain parts of India and discuss the
possible reasons for the observed pattern.
In India, dhole is found commonly in the
forests of the Western Ghats, and parts of the
fragmented forests of the Eastern Ghats in the
southern states, most forested areas of central
Indian highlands and the moist forests of Orissa
and Bihar states (Johnsingh 1985). Dholes are
also reported from other places, but are not as
commonly found. Johnsingh (1985) observes that
their preferred habitat is dense forest,
interspersed with open land, as well as sparsely
wooded forest with adequate prey and water.
Wolves are distributed commonly in the
northwestern arid areas, central Indian highlands
and in the Deccan plateau of India. The
population is almost continuous within the states
of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh
(Jhala 1993). Scrubland and grassland of the
semi-arid parts of peninsular India are the
preferred habitats. However, as an exception, an
eastern wolf population occurs in the moist
forests of Orissa and Bihar (Jhala 1993). Jhala
(1993) also observes that the wolves usually do
not occur in closed forests, but sometimes do
occur on the periphery of such forested areas. In
the Indian trans-Himalayan areas, different
subspecies of both dhole and wolf are sympatric
(Fox and Chundawat 1992).
From these accounts, it is evident that the
geographical ranges of dhole and wolf do overlap,
418
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
in India, to a considerable extent, interestingly
mostly in the central Indian highlands. Yet, their
preferred habitats do seem to vary. The wolves
are adapted to arid open environs and dholes to
closed forests. Interspecific competition between
them appears to be the most plausible reason for
this segregation. However, at places where their
preferred habitats meet, or at places where there
is a mosaic of habitats providing niches for both
these species, they are found to occur together.
Interestingly, in central India, most forests exist
as a mosaic of habitats, due to the historical
disturbances caused by the human population,
and thereby offer resources to both the species.
Some examples of such places where the
two species occur together are: Panna (Madhya
Pradesh) and Palamau (Bihar) Tiger Reserves,
parts of Bihar and Orissa forests. Even in these
areas, the wolves may be occupying the periphery
of the forests or around human settlements inside
Fox, M.J. & R.S. Chundawat (1 992): Wolves in the trans-
Himalayan region of India: The continued survival
of a low density population. 2nd North American
symposium on wolves. University of Alberta,
Edmonton, Canada.
Jhala, Y.V. (1993): An update on the status, distribution
and ecology of the Indian wolf ( Canis lupus
forests, whereas dholes occur in the less inhabited
areas, as in Panna (Yoganand 1998). Temporal
segregation between them may also be seen, as
in Panna, where the wolves occur more often in
winter. The dholes are largely diurnal, whereas
wolves are mostly nocturnal. The dholes thrive
on wild prey, while wolves are dependent on
domestic livestock in most of their range. In
places where the two species occur together,
either or both may occur at low densities, as in
Panna. Quantification of the exact parameters
that enable these two coursing predators to occur
together would enhance our knowledge and help
conserve these two endangered species.
August 16, 1999 A.J.T. JOHNSINGH
K. YOGANAND
Wildlife Institute of India,
P.B. 18, Chandrabani,
Dehra Dun 248 001,
Uttaranchal, India.
ENCES
pallipes). International Wolf Symposium, Leon,
Spain.
Johnsingh, A.J.T. (1985): Distribution and status of the
dhole Cuon alpinus Pallas, 1811 in South Asia.
Mammalia, 49: 203-208.
Yoganand, K. (1998): Wolves in Panna National Park.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 95(2): 327-328.
3. THE SPECIES OF THE WILDCAT IN INDIA :
A COMMENT ON ‘THE DESERT CAT IN PANNA NATIONAL PARK’
JBNHS,\ o\.96{\)
With reference to the abovementioned note
in the JBNHS, 96(1), K. Yoganand is in error in
citing Corbett and Hall (1992) as describing the
Indian subspecies of Felis silvestris as F. lybica
or F. s. lybica. The authors identify the Indian
form of F. silvestris as subspecies ornata. Some
authorities do consider Asiatic and African
wildcats to be conspecific as F. lybica spp., but
the now commonly used taxonomy by
C. Wozencraft in mammal species of the world
(1993) describes lybica and ornata as synonyms,
i.e. subspecies, of F. silvestris, which agrees with
Corbett and Hall (1992).
Common names are a matter of usage and
are not authoritative. Nowell and Jackson (1996),
considered it more appropriate to call F. s. ornata
the Asiatic wildcat rather than the Indian desert
cat. India is on the southeastern fringe of the
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
419
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
range, which extends westward to the southern
and eastern shores of the Caspian Sea, and
through the Central Asian Republics to Xinjiang
and southern Mongolia.
Refe
Corbett, G.B. & J.E. Hill (1992): The mammals of the
Indo-Malayan region: a systematic review. Oxford
University Press, Oxford.
Nowell, K. & P. Jackson (1 996): Wild Cats: Status Survey
August 12, 1999 PETER JACKSON
Route des Macherettes
1172 Bougy
Switzerland
ENCES
and Conservation Action Plan. IUCN, Gland.
Wozencraft, W.C. (1993): Order Carnivora in Mammal
Species of the World: a taxonomic and geographic
reference. Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC.
4. KANHA NATIONAL PARK BECOMES A NEW NIDUS
FOR ELEPHANT SCHISTOSOMIASIS
( With one text-figure)
Schistosomiasis in elephants is a little
known infection, due to little attention paid, or
to low prevalence of the infection. Vogel and
Minning (1940) described the first schistosome
Bivitellobilharzia loxodontae from an African
elephant ( Loxodonta africana). Mudaliar and
Ramanujachari (1945), described another species
Schistosoma nairi (amended to Bivitellobilharzia
nairi by Dutt and Srivastava, 1955), from an
Asian elephant ( Elephas maximus) from
Coimbatore district, Tamil Nadu, which was
redescribed by Sundaram et al. (1972). Rao and
Hiregaudar (1953), reported the occurrence of
B. nairi from six elephants of North Kanara
division of the erstwhile Bombay state, whereas
Kalapesi and Purohit (1957) described its
histopathology. More recently, Islam (1994)
mentioned its presence in the elephants in
Kaziranga National Park, Assam. So far, B. nairi
has been reported from the natural habitats
(Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Assam) of the elephant.
We are now reporting its presence in Kanha
National Park, Madhya Pradesh, where only
domesticated elephants remain.
Kanha National Park (22° 07-22° 27 N
and 80° 26' - 80° 03' E) in Mandla district,
Madhya Pradesh (M.P.), India, harbours 27 Asian
elephants which are being used for wildlife
tourism. Of these, one tusker was brought some
25 years ago from Coimbatore. Of the rest, 7 were
brought from Sonepur (Bihar, 18 years ago), 3
were caught from Sarguja (M.P., 10 years ago),
while the rest were bom and reared in the Park.
The elephants frequent ponds and other water
sources for bathing, and in summer they spray
water on their body. This behaviour is favourable
for picking up blood fluke infection.
Of the 27 elephants, faecal samples from
25 were examined by acid-ether method. The
whole sediment, divided into three parts, was
examined with and without a coverslip under 50x
magnification. Camera Lucida drawings were
made (400x) to study the morphology and
measurements of the eggs (Fig. 1). Out of 27
elephants, 8 (32%) were found positive for eggs
of B. nairi whose size varied from 122 x 77 to
205 x 90 pm, with a spine size ranging from 6.2
x 2.35 to 8.3 x 3.2 pm. The egg was oval, with a
stout, abrupt spine present on one extremity
(Fig. 1). The shape varied with their orientation,
but was similar to that described by previous
workers (Mudaliar and Ramanujachari 1945,
Rao and Hiregaudar 1953, Sundaram et al.
1972). Moreover, the shape was distinctly
different from those of Orientobilharzia dattai,
Schistosoma incognitum, S. nasale, S. spindale
and S. indicum — the blood flukes reported from
Jabalpur area (Agrawal et al. 1991). However,
there is a variation in the size of the eggs reported
by us, and sizes reported by Mudaliar and
420
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
100 pm
Fig. 1 : Camera Lucida drawings of Bivitellobilharzia nairi eggs from elephants
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC 2000
421
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Ramanujachari (1945), and Sundaram et al.
(1972).
Of the eight infected elephants, 4 are
juveniles, 3-5 years of age, which were bom and
reared in Kanha, confirming that these elephants
have picked up B. nairi infection in the Park
itself. Thus, Kanha now has a nidus of B. nairi.
This is probably due to two factors. In the first
event, the nidus was existent in Kanha, where
the other animals maintained the infection, but
it remained undetected. The elephants picked up
the infection from Kanha and are identified as
positive. However, so far, B. nairi has been
reported exclusively from elephants throughout
the country (though bloodflukes have a wide host
range at the sexual stage). Thus, the parasite
might be restricted to elephants. In this case, the
elephant from Coimbatore may have introduced
B. nairi and spread it in Kanha. The miracidia
emerging from eggs of B. nairi successfully
infected freshwater snails of Kanha National
Park, thus making it a new nidus of the parasite.
This reflects the capability of B. nairi to establish
itself in a new geographical area. On a visit to
Kanha, the second author (MCA) noted the
freshwater snails Indoplanorbis exustus,
Lymnaea luteola, L. auricularia, Melanoides and
Vivipara. So far, only I. exustus and L. luteola
have been confirmed as the intermediate hosts
for Indian schistosomes. In all likelihood, B. nairi
is also utilizing at least one of these two snails.
According to Chauhan et al. (1972), cercariae
of B. nairi have an eye spot (ocellate), hence one
must be careful while searching for the
intermediate host of B. nairi, as ocellated
cercariae are generally attributed to avian
schistosomes.
Acknowledgements
The work was undertaken in the National
Fellow Project, financed by the Indian Council
of Agricultural Research, New Delhi. We thank
Dr. Rajesh Gopal, Director, Kanha National Park
and Dr. R.L. Chouksey, Veterinary Extension
Officer, Nainpur Block, Mandla district, Madhya
Pradesh for their help.
February 1 8, 2000 K.P. SINGH
M.C. AGRAWAL
Department of Parasitology ,
College of Veterinary Science & A.H., JNKVV,
Jabalpur 482 001,
Madhya Pradesh, India.
References
Agrawal, M.C., P.S. Banerjee & H.L. Shah (1991): Five
mammalian schistosome species in an endemic focus
in India. Trans. Royal Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 85: 321.
Chauhan, A.S., C.B. Srivastava & B.S. Chauhan (1973):
Studies on the trematode fauna of India. Prt 6. Digenea:
Schistosomatidae. J. Zool. Soc. India 25: 83-127.
Dutt, S.C. & H.D. Srivastava (1955): A revision of the
Genus Ornithobilharzia Odhner, 1912: Trematoda:
Schistosomatidae Proc. 42nd Ind. Sci. Cong. III-283.
Islam, S. (1994): Occurrence of Bivitellobilharzia nairi
in the captive Asian elephants ( Elephas maximus ) from
the Kaziranga National Park and Assam State Zoo,
Guwahati. Proc. 6th Nat. Cong. Vet. Parasitol-2.10:
2.
Kalapesi, R.M. & B.L. Purohit (1957): Histopathological
observation of some lesions due to schistosome
infection in an Indian elephant. Bombay Vet. Coll.
Mag. 6: 8-11.
Mudaliar, S.V. &G. Ramanujachari (1945): Schistosoma
nairi sp. n. from an elephant. Indian Vet. J. 22:
1-4.
Rao, S.R. & L.S. Hiregaudar (1953): Schistosomiasis in
elephants in Bombay state. Indian Vet. J. 30: 241-
242.
Sundaram, R.K., R.P. Iyer., C.T. Peter & V.S. Alwar
(1972): On Bivitellobilharzia nairi (Mudaliar and
Ramanujachari, 1945) Dutt and Srivastava, 1955
(Trematoda: Schistosomatidae) parasitic in Indian
elephants (. Elephas maximus) with a redescription of
the species. Indian Vet. J. 49: 1-10.
Vogel, H & W. Minning ( 1 940): Bilharziose bei Elefanten.
Archive Furschiffs - und Tropenhygiene 44: 562-74.
422
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
5. SIGHT RECORD OF METAD MILLARDIA MELTADA GRAY (FAMILY:
MURINAE) AROUND RATNAGIRI, WESTERN GHAT REGION
During my ten year stay in Kolhapur,
Ratnagiri (Maharashtra), I toured the
surrounding areas extensively, where a variety
of mammals, birds and reptiles were observed.
On night trips, a number of metads
Millardia meltada were seen in all types of
terrain. Strangely enough, their movements were
mostly recorded from north to south. On a stretch
of 100 km, as many as 70 metads were seen at a
time, all moving in the same direction. In order
to satisfy my curiosity, I back tracked occasionally
and noticed the same behaviour. To my mind,
this movement could be on account of foraging
during the night for food
September 30, 1 999 ARVIND BHAROS
B-101, Gay atri N agar,
PO Shanker Nagar,
Raipur 492 007,
Chattisgarh, India.
6. LESSER FRIGATE BIRD FREGATA MINOR ALDABRENSIS MATHEWS
A RARE RECORD FROM SALIM ALI BIRD SANCTUARY,
THATTAKAD, KERALA
Lesser frigate birds are recorded as
accidental stragglers in the Indian subcontinent.
There is only one specimen of the bird in the
BNHS collection, a male which was storm-blown
and entangled in a fishing net during the SW
monsoon near Quilon in Kerala (S.H. Prater,
JBNHS 33: 445). Apart from this, there are three
sight records from Bombay during the SW
monsoon (Taylor, JBNHS 51: 939). There are
two specimens in the Colombo museum which
were wrongly identified as F. andrewsi , but have
since been corrected.
On July 1, 1998, a very weak frigate bird
was seen on the lake edge of Salim Ali Bird
Sanctuary at Thattakad. There had been a strong
wind with a speed of 75 kmph and heavy rain
during the previous night. The Salim Ali Bird
Sanctuary is situated on the bank of Periyar river,
and has a large waterbody constituted by the
Periyar Valley Irrigation Project dam. The
Sanctuary is mainly for tropical forest bird
species. There are about 27 species of water birds
recorded from the sanctuary, apart from the 300
species of forest birds. The sanctuary is about
75 km by road from the Arabian Sea coast
(Cochin).
The specimen was taken to the Salim Ali
Wild Wings Trust research station at the
Sanctuary headquarters. The bird was slightly
bigger than a kite and also longer. It was
brownish-black above with a white head, neck
and belly. A prominent greyish-brown band was
present on the breast. Hind neck feathers were
white, becoming greyish-mottled towards the
lower neck, tail deeply forked and black in
colour. Tarsus short, fully feathered and webbed.
Bill long, broader at the base, downcurved and
hooked at the tip. The colour of the bill was
greyish-blue, paler at the down curve and black
at the tip. Nostrils unnoticeable, elongated slit
almost at the base of the bill. Feet fleshy, grey
with darker claws. Inner side of tarsus feathers
were whitish, whereas the outer were dark
brownish-black. Iris dark brown with a bluish-
grey patch around the eyes. There was no moult
except for the 1st tail feather on the left. All
other tail feathers were old and worn out.
The identification of the bird was
confirmed as Fregata minor for the following
reasons: Black and white oceanic bird with long,
pointed, streamlined wings, deeply forked tail,
long bill, hooked at the tip, obsolete nostrils, short
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC 2000
423
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
and fully feathered tarsus with webs on the feet.
Regarding the lesser frigate bird, ‘female is the
only frigate bird with white underparts and
whitish throat’, according to Alexander 1995;
handbook Vol. 1, pp. 48. The bird is also
suspected to be immature as the head and hind
neck are white.
The first bird was recorded from Quilon
in 1928 and this the second one from the Salim
Ali Bird Sanctuary, in 1998. This is the only
female and immature specimen available in the
Subcontinent now as per published records. The
bird died after a day. When it was cut open its
stomach was empty, and the ovary granular and
ill developed. The stuffed specimen is displayed
at the interpretation centre of the Salim Ali Bird
Sanctuary Museum.
Live measurements of the bird are as
follows:
Wing — 560 mm
Wing span — 1,700 mm (57")
Bill (from feathers) — 80 mm
Tarsus — 25 mm
Middle toe — 60 mm
Tail — 125 mm (Inner)
228 mm (Outer)
Weight — 680 gm
July 31,1998 R. SUGATHAN
K.K. SIVAN
Salim Ali Wild Wings Trust,
Ecological Research Station,
Thattakad Bird Sanctuary,
Njayapilly 686 691, Kerala, India.
7. PURPLE HERON ARDEA PURPUREA (LINN.) (ARDEIDAE) NESTING ON
WATER HYACINTH EICHHORNIA CRASSIPES (PONTEDERIACEAE)
On April 29, 1997, we saw four nests of
the purple heron Ardea purpurea on thick mats
of water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes on
Kanajari village pond, 10 km northwest of
Anand (22° 32' N, 73° 00' E) in Kheda district,
Gujarat. The four nests were 10-15 m apart and
far away from some Acacia trees emerging from
the tank. The nest material contained water
hyacinth and dry thorny twigs. Initially we
thought that somewhat grown young ones were
standing on the water hyacinth, but soon realized
that they were nestlings in their nest, when we
saw adult birds arriving, with greeting calls, and
feeding the young. There were 2 young ones in
two nests and one in the 3rd nest, all 5 weeks of
age. The fourth nest was in the incubation stage.
Considering the age of the young, and the known
incubation period i.e. 26 days (Hancock and
Kushian 1984), it can be presumed that the
clutches were initiated in the first or second week
of February. The heronry initiated on the
Acacia nilotica trees standing within the pond
had two nests of purple heron in the nest building
stage, and one in the early incubation stage.
On the same date, other colonial water birds in
the heronry were little egrets (9), large egrets
(10), little cormorants (12) and white ibises (8).
Foraging cattle egrets (15) were seen in breed-
ing plumage, but they had not initiated nest
building.
The nest of the purple heron is usually
made of Phragmites or Typha stems and built
on a flattened site in dense reed beds, rushes or
papyrus (Hancock and Kushian 1984). Twig
nests are also built in thickets in Asia (Ali and
Ripley 1983, Hancock and Kushian 1984).
Hence, nesting on water hyacinth is a new
record. Water hyacinth always floats on the water
surface and hence the nest is safe against an
increase in water level. The nests on Phragmites
or Typha do not offer such safety. This
observation indicates a prolonged breeding
season (February to September or October) at a
given site, with the probability of double nesting.
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Acknowledgements
We are thankful to the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research, New Delhi, for financial
support, and to Dr. D.N. Yadav, Officer- in-
charge, for encouragement.
November 9, 1 998 AESHITA MUKHERJEE
B.M. PARASHARYA
AINP on Agricultural Ornithology,
Gujarat Agricultural University,
Anand Campus, Anand 388 110,
Gujarat, India.
References
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of Hancock, J. & J. Kushlan(1984): The Herons Handbook.
India and Pakistan. Compact edition. Oxford University Croom Helm, London.
Press, New Delhi.
8. PALLAS’S FISHING EAGLE HALIAEETUS LEUCORYPHUS (PALLAS)
PIRATES FISH FROM AN OTTER LUTRA LUTRA (LINN.)
I observed four common otters ( Lutra
lutra) on boulders in the middle of the River
Manas. The otters were fishing; they would come
out of the water with the fish and feed while
sitting on the boulder. A Pallas’s fishing eagle
was noticed circling above the otters, repeatedly
trying to snatch the fish. It made two or three
futile attempts by diving at the otter. After a
while, the bird made another attempt. This time,
the otter was frightened and dropped the fish,
which was neatly picked up by the eagle in one
swoop. The Pallas’s fishing eagle is regularly
known to pirate fish from other fish eating birds,
or smaller eagles, but very few have been
recorded robbing otters or other mammals
(Prakash 1989).
Acknowledgements
I am thankful to Dr. Vibhu Prakash,
Principal Scientist, BNHS, Bharatpur for his
guidance and to the Pigmy Hog Conservation
Programme personnel for their help during field
trips.
October 8, 1998 BIBHUTI PRASAD LAHKAR
c/o Niramoy Pharmacy
Near Ganesh Mandir, Ganeshguri Tiniali,
Dispur, Guwahati 781 006,
Assam, India.
Reference
Prakash, V. ( 1 989): General Ecology of Raptors in Keoladeo National Park. Ph. D. thesis submitted to the University of
Bombay.
9. GROUP SIZE AND VIGILANCE IN INDIAN PEAFOWL
PA VO CRISTA TUS (LINN.), FAMILY: PHASIANIDAE
Flocking in birds is considered to be an
adaptive social strategy against danger, and the
evolution of gregariousness is an effective
solution to the problem of the individual’s
vigilance load (Dimond and Lazarus 1974). Birds
feeding in large flocks are safer (in terms of
number of birds alert at any moment) and have
more time to feed (in terms of the proportion of
its time that an individual spends alert). It is
known that the time budget of a species is related
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425
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to the flock size. A bird in a flock can allocate
more time to foraging (Murton 1971, Rubenstein
et al. 1977, Caraco 1979 and Saino 1994).
However, Elgar (1989) reviewed over 50 studies
of birds and mammals, and suggested that the
observed negative correlation between time spent
in vigilance and flock size in these studies could
be confounded by other variables.
According to Giest (1977), the Indian
peafowl Pavo cristatus is an opportunist that
occupied the highly productive ecotone between
forest and water, and thus evolved gregariousness
and less aggressive behaviour. This paper
investigates the relationship between flock size
and vigilance behaviour of the Indian peafowl,
accounting for the confounding variables of Elgar
(1989).
A population of peafowl living in an agro-
ecosystem on the outskirts of Aligarh town (27°
30' N, 79° 40' E) was studied. The potential
predators in this area were the jungle cat Felis
chaus, dogs Canisfamiliaris, and human beings.
Observations were made on peafowl feeding on
bajra ( Pennisetum typhoides) stubble in
November 1994, on eight consecutive days,
between 0700 and 0930 hrs. Birds were observed
from a fixed (elevated) point 120 m away from
the stubble. Data on the following aspects were
collected on focal animals: peck rate (number of
pecks per minute) and vigilance behaviour
(heads-up number per minute and duration in
seconds of each head-up). The activity budgets
of the focal individuals were also recorded at 1 5
second intervals. Activities were classified as
feeding, pacing, resting, aggression and others.
The proportion of time spent on each activity
was calculated.
Peafowl groups were divided into three
categories: solitary, group with 2-5 individuals
and group with more than 5 individuals. Both
parametric (Pearson product - moment
correlation and t-test) and non-parametric
(Mann- Whitney U test) methods were used for
data analysis. Data was log-transformed for
parametric tests.
Confounding variables of Elgar:
According to Elgar (1989), food density is an
important confounding variable influencing the
relationship between flock size and vigilance
behaviour. Variation in food density was not
measured directly in this study, but the density
of seeds on the stubble was not expected to vary
much over the eight day period. Moreover, the
significant correlation of peck rate (number of
pecks per minute, r = 0.16, N = 94, NS) and
proportion of time spent in feeding (r = 0.13, N
= 74, NS) to flock size suggests that food density
was not potentially important in the case of
peafowl.
Competition within the group (Elgar 1989)
did not seem to affect the vigilance behaviour,
because aggression did not increase with flock
size (proportion of time spent in aggression r =
0.08 N = 60, NS).
To verify the confounding influence of the
‘edge effect’ (Elgar 1989), positions of 27
individuals were categorized into 15 peripheral
and 12 central positions. It was found that the
proportion of time spent in vigilance (t = 1.51,
N = 27, NS) was not affected by the individual’s
position within the group.
Individual variation in foraging ability
(Elgar 1989) was not pertinent here, because
individuals were sampled randomly. Secondly,
the individuals moved actively, changing their
positions frequently.
Several studies have shown that sex may
have a confounding effect on the relation between
vigilance and group size (Elgar 1989), but none
of the feeding and vigilance behaviour assessed
differed significantly between males and females
(Table lb). Age and dominance might not affect
the vigilance behaviour, as all observations were
taken in the non-breeding season, when their
group composition was mixed and fluid (Yasmin
1997).
426
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Of the other confounding variables
suggested by Elgar (1989), distance from cover
(approx. 120 m), and time of day were constant.
Variation in temperature was minor (18 °C to
22 °C) over the observation period. Breeding
status, presence of predators, observer and habitat
obstruction did not confound the results, because
sampling was done in the non-breeding season,
predators were absent, data was recorded from a
fixed point and there was no visual or habitat
obstruction as the peafowl were feeding in an
open area.
Group size and Vigilance: Proportion of
time spent in vigilance was inversely correlated
to flock size (r = - 0.34, N = 74, P<0.01).
Vigilance rate (r = - 0.47, N = 94, PO.OOl) and
duration of heads-up (r = - 0.69, N = 94, P<0.00 1)
were also inversely correlated to group size. Peck
rate was inversely correlated to duration of time
spent in vigilance (r = - 0.39, N = 94, PO.OOl).
Group size and Feeding behaviour: As
stated above, none of the feeding behaviour
parameters were correlated to flock size.
However, when the peck rate and proportion of
feeding time of individuals in three categories
of group sizes were verified, the results showed
that significant difference existed between the
feeding behaviour of solitary individuals and
individuals in larger flocks (Table la).
Inverse correlation of vigilance parameters
with flock size suggests that increasing flock size
helps the individual to scan less. By reducing
the rate of scanning and time spent in vigilance,
the birds can spend more time on feeding and
feed faster. This was supported by the result that
birds pecked faster and devoted more time to
feeding in groups of larger sizes.
The negative correlation between peck rate
and duration of vigilance also suggested that
individuals do benefit in their foraging ability
when in larger groups, because they need less
time for vigilance, as in brent geese (Branta
bernicula ) (Inglis and Lazarus 1981),
Table 1
FEEDING AND VIGILANCE BEHAVIOUR MEASURES
IN RELATION TO GROUP SIZES AND SEXES.
a) Different group sizes
Measure
Single (N= 12) vs
Single (N= 12) vs
group size 2-5
group size > 5
(N = 38)
(N = 44)
Peck rate
U = 304.5*
U = 450***
Vigilance rate
U = 279 NS
U = 434.5***
Duration of
vigilance
U = 353**
U = 479.5***
Measure
Single (N = 16) vs
Single (N = 16 vs)
group size 2-5
group size > 5
(N = 38)
(N = 26)
Proportion of time
U = 363 NS
U = 227*
spent in feeding
Proportion of time
U = 413.5*
U = 236.5*
spent in vigilance
b) Male (N = 23) vs
Female (N = 15)
Measure
Group size 2-5
Group size > 5
Peck rate
U = 213.5 NS
U = 262 NS
Vigilance rate
U= 194 NS
U = 227.5 NS
Duration of
vigilance
U= 185.5 NS
U = 246.5 NS
Proportion of time
U= 173.5 NS
U = 60 NS
spent in feeding
Proportion of time
U= 197 NS
U = 246.5 NS
spent in vigilance
Mann- Whitney U test, * = P<0.05, ** = P<0.01 , *** = PO.OOl
goldfinches (Carduelis carduelis) (Gluck 1987)
and in carrion crows ( Corvus cor one ) (Saino
1994).
The increased feeding rate and proportion
of time spent in feeding of peafowl in flocks over
solitary conspecifics, in all the three ranges of
flock size could either be due to intraspecific
competition (Clark and Mangel 1986) or due to
local enhancement (Krebs 1973, Morse 1977).
Since aggression did not increase with increasing
flock size, the intraspecific competition
hypothesis is ruled out. The increased peck rate
and proportion of time spent in feeding due to
local enhancement seems to be true in peafowl.
They were seen flying directly from roosts and
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All
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
joining the feeding flocks in the crop field.
In conclusion, this study showed that in
the range of group sizes considered, peafowl
benefit from being in a flock, since peck rate and
proportion of time spent in feeding in flocks were
higher than those of solitary birds, and the
individual time spent in vigilance decreased with
flock size. However, the increase in feeding rate
with flock size might not be linear and consistent.
Peafowl flock in open habitat, and flocking seems
to be adaptive, mainly with respect to high food
availability and increased vigilance (Yasmin
Refer
Caraco, T. (1979): Time budgeting and group size.
Ecology 60: 611-617.
Clarck, C.W. & M. Mangel (1986): The evolutionary
advantages of group foraging. Theor. Pop. Biol. 30:
45-79.
Dimond, S. & L. Lazarus ( 1 974): The problem of vigilance
in animal life. Brain Behav. Evol. 9: 60-79.
Elgar, M.A. (1989): Predator vigilance and group size in
mammals and birds: a critical review of the empirical
evidence. Biol. Rev. 8: 13-33.
Giest, V. (1977): A comparison of social adaptations in
relation to ecology in gallinaceous birds and ungulate
societies. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Systematics. 8: 193-207.
Gluck, E. (1987): Benefits and costs of social foraging
and optimal flock size in goldfinches ( Carduelis
carduelis ). Ethology 74: 65-79.
Inglis, I.R. & J. Lazarus (1981): Vigilance and flock size
in brent geese: the edge effect. Z. Tierpsychol. 57:
193-200.
1997). Nevertheless, foraging as a member of a
group is more advantageous than feeding alone.
July 23, 1 998 SHAHLA YASMIN*
H.S.A. YAHYA
Centre of Wildlife and Ornithology,
Aligarh Muslim University,
Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh, India.
* Present address: Zoology Department,
Science Block,
Patna Women ’s College, Bailey Road,
Patna 800 001, Bihar, India.
ENCES
Krebs, J.R. ( 1 973): Social learning and the significance of
mixed-species of chickadees ( Parus spp.) Can. J.
Zool. 51: 1275-1288.
Morse, D.H. (1977): Feeding behaviour and predator
avoidance in heterospecific groups. Bioscience 27:
332-339.
Murton, R.K. (1971): Why do some bird species feed in
flocks. Ibis 113: 534-536.
Rubenstein, D.I., R.J. Barnett, R.S. Ridgely & P.H.
Klopfer (1977): Adaptive advantages of mixed-
species feeding flocks among seed eating finches in
Costa Rica. Ibis 1 19: 1 0-2 1 .
Saino, N. (1994): Time budget variation in relation to flock
size in carrion crows ( Corvus corone corone).Anim.
Behav. 47: 1189-1 196.
Yasmin S. (1997): Group size and composition of Indian
peafowl ( Pavo cristatus ) in an agro-ecosystem at
Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
94(3): 478-482.
10. EGGS IN THE DIET OF THE SARUS CRANE GRUS ANTIGONE (LINN.)
The sarus crane ( Grus antigone) is well
known to be an omnivore, feeding on grain of
several kinds, shoots of plants, bulbs of aquatic
plants, frogs, lizards and other reptiles,
grasshoppers and other insects, fish, vegetable
matter, fmits, and aquatic and terrestrial molluscs
(Hume and Marshall 1879, Law 1930, Baker
1929, Ghorpade 1975). I had the opportunity to
observe a sarus family in Haryana which has
enabled me to make an addition to the known
diet of the species.
On the morning of June 16, 1998, I was
observing a pair of sarus cranes with a young
chick foraging among the water hyacinth in the
Bhindawas Wildlife Sanctuary, Haryana. The
pair were characteristically keeping the chick
between them as they moved around and
occasionally, they would pick up a small crab
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from among the water hyacinth and drop it in
front of the chick. The male sarus suddenly reared
its head and made a jabbing movement into the
hyacinth with its open beak. It had chanced upon
an incubating spotbill duck (Anas
poecilorhynchos) which hurriedly took flight,
calling loudly. The male began feeding on the
eggs, and proceeded to swallow them one by one,
lifting them, and raising its beak upwards. The
female, meanwhile, herded the chick towards the
nest and swallowed one egg. The male bird had
swallowed four eggs continuously and a distinct
bulge had formed at the top of the neck. The
female then lifted one egg from the nest and
dropped it on the ground near the chick and
pecked at the egg to open it up for the chick to
feed on. When the chick began feeding, the
female moved towards the nest, broke open one
egg and fed on the contents. The male
regurgitated part of the eggs and the chick fed
on this as well. The spotbill duck had, in the
Refer
Archibald, G.W. & C.D. Meine (1996): Family Gruidae
(Cranes) In: J. del Hoyo, A. Elliott & J. Sargatal
(eds) Handbook of the Birds of the World Vol. 3.
Hoatzin to Auks. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, pp. 67-
75.
Baicer, E.C.S. (1929): The Game Birds of the Indian Em-
pire Vol.V. The Waders and other semi-sporting
birds. Part VII. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 33(1): 4.
meanwhile, made several unsuccessful attempts
to drive away the cranes from the nest by flying
close and calling out loudly. The three cranes
ate at least nine eggs during this observation.
They stayed at the nest for over two hours after
eating and preened themselves.
Eggs have never been known to be in the
diet of the sarus crane. The adult birds are,
however, reputed to feed the chicks on the egg
shells just after hatching (A. R. Rahmani pers.
comm.). This behaviour has been observed in the
sand-hill crane ( Grus canadensis) where the
adult offers pieces of the egg shell directly to the
chicks, or drops the pieces in front of them
(Archibald and Meine 1996).
August 21,1998 K.S. GOPI SUND AR
Wildlife Institute of India,
PB 18, Chandrabani,
Dehra Dun 248 001,
Uttaranchal, India.
ENCES
Ghorpade, A.M. (1975): Notes on the feeding of the sarus
crane Grus antigone antigone (Linn.). J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc., 72(1): 199-200.
Hume, A.O. & C.M.T. Marshall ( 1 879): The Game Birds
of India, Burmah & Ceylon. Vol. Ill, pp. 4-5.
Law, S.C. (1930): Fish eating habit of the sarus crane
(Antigone antigone). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,
34: 582-583.
1 1 . CIRCUMSTANTIAL EVIDENCE OF BREEDING
OF THE NILGIRI WOOD PIGEON COLUMBA ELPHINSTONII (SYKES)
AT NANDI HILLS, NEAR BANGALORE
The Nilgiri wood pigeon Columba
elphinstonii is known to occur in the Western Ghats
complex including the Anamalais, Nilgiris, Palnis
and the hills of western Mysore, where it affects
moist evergreen forest from the foothills to the
highest shola forests (Ali and Ripley 1983).
Outside this designated area, the Nilgiri
wood pigeon Columba elphinstonii has been
reported at the Nandi hills (13° 22' N, 77° 41' E)
about 60 km north of Bangalore (Subramanya et
al. 1994).
I visited Nandi hills on March 23, 1997.
While bird watching in a clearing adjoining an
evergreen patch, the sound of a snapping twig
drew my attention. A pigeon flew out of the dense
canopy of the evergreen patch into the open. It
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alighted on a tree almost in the middle of the
clearing, with the twig in its beak, about 6 m
from the ground. When it moved to the centre of
the tree, it was not visible until it flew out without
the twig.
Subsequently, the Nilgiri wood pigeon was
seen walking on the branches of nearby trees,
moving towards the slender, dry twigs, balancing
itself with great difficulty. On selecting the twig,
it broke it off and carried it to the nesting tree.
Both individuals of the pair were seen
carrying nesting material. One individual had
the central rectrices missing, which made
identification of the two individuals possible.
This observation of the Nilgiri wood
pigeon at Nandi hills is significant, as it is the
only breeding report of the species in the recent
past.
November 9, 1998 S. KARTHIKEYAN
24, Opp. Banashankari Temple
8th Block, Jayanagar P.O.
Bangalore 560 082,
Karnataka, India.
References
Ali, Salim & S. Dillon Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Subramanya, S., J.N. Prasad & S. Karthikeyan (1994):
Birds of India and Pakistan, Oxford University Nilgiri wood pigeons at Nandi hills near Bangalore.
Press, pp. 737. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 91(2): 319-320.
12. USE OF PLASTIC AS NEST MATERIAL BY GOLDEN ORIOLE
ORIOLUS ORIOLUS (LINN.), FAMILY: ORIOLIDAE
While still following nest designs
traditional of orioles, golden orioles in the
Indroda Park have shown innovations in the
selection of nest materials. Plastic sheets and
tape have been added to ‘grass and fast fibres
bound with cobwebs’, the book of Indian birds
by Salim Ali.
Uday Vora, DFO, Gandhinagar took me
bird watching on Sunday, July 19, 1998, in the
Indroda Park, Gandhinagar. The Park borders
the Sabarmati river and is, in his words “a
maternity home for birds”. He has a keen eye
for locating nests and had taken me to see a white
paradise flycatcher incubating freshly laid eggs.
The nest was up on a babool {Acacia sp.) tree,
which had nests containing full grown chicks
of a black drongo pair, a whitebrowed fantail
flycatcher incubating eggs and a white eye on
eggs. Nearby was a golden oriole’s nest from
which young had just flown, the family was in
the vicinity. In another babool tree, again a black
drongo nest associated with a paradise
flycatcher’s, this time with hatched chicks being
fed by a chestnut male.
Further on, among eucalyptus trees he
showed me two golden oriole nests, from both
of which the chicks had flown — the birds were
in the vicinity — the liquid calls of the males
and the harsh responses of the females and the
juveniles were continually heard. It was to these
nests that Uday drew my attention. Glassing
them, I confirmed a discoloured white piece of
plastic sheet incorporated among the traditional
fibres and grass in one nest, the other had plastic
tape — the type used for tying packages —
woven into the structure! The nests were some
8 m up in the sparsely crowned trees, both
extremely exposed. I have suggested to Uday
Vora to have the nest collected and the plastic
material photographed.
July 30, 1 998 LAVKUMAR KHACHER
646, Vastunirman,
Gandhinagar 382 022, Gujarat, India.
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13. COMPETITION FOR FOOD BETWEEN A GARDEN LIZARD
CALOTES VERSICOLOR (DAUDIN) AND A MAGPIE ROBIN
COPSYCHUS SA ULARIS LINN.
On April 6, 1998, at about 1230 hrs, I saw
a garden lizard Calotes versicolor chasing a
centipede Scolopendra sp. for a distance of about
1 0 m in a garden at Garigaon, Guwahati, Assam.
The centipede was moving fast and the lizard
was playing with it; it held the centipede and set
it free many times. Suddenly, a magpie robin
Copsychus saularis appeared, and attempted to
steal the prey of the calotes. At this, the calotes
became aggressive, standing up on its hind legs,
holding the anterior portion of the body upright
and attempting to bite the bird, but the bird
moved smartly to avoid the attack.
Taking advantage of the interruption, the
centipede started to move away, but as it was
already injured, it could not make much headway
before being sighted by the magpie robin. The
bird now left the calotes alone, and tried to fly
away with the centipede, but succeeded in getting
only about half of the centipede — the calotes
having retained the other half.
The magpie then sat about 5 m away and
the calotes charged towards the bird, leaving its
portion of the prey on the ground. This time the
bird flew away, holding its portion of the
centipede in its beak. To my astonishment, the
calotes did not come back to regain its share of
the kill.
Dec. 1 6, 1 998 SIMANTA KUMAR KALITA
Department of Zoology
Gauhati University,
Guwahati 781 014,
Assam, India.
14. PURPLERUMPED SUNBIRD NECTARINIA ZEYLONICA (LINN.)
AT GANDHINAGAR, GUJARAT
In ‘Birds of Gujarat — A Salim Ali
Centenary year overview’ JBNHS 93(3),
December 1996, I had this to say about this
attractive little bird: ‘ . . . resident bird watchers
of Vadodara and Surat may well come across a
good many more’ in response to Salim Ali’s ‘a
single unconfirmed sight record. ’ I had always
been puzzled why this otherwise common bird
of the peninsular gardens was not more
widespread and common in Gujarat, and I was
happy to have recorded it in Ahmedabad a year
ago (1997). For a month, I have been aware of
sunbirds around my Gandhinagar home,
emanating calls at a higher note and sounding
more lisping, and I was sure I was not hearing
the ubiquitous purple sunbird N. asiatica, but
at 60, one does not place much credence on small
variations of sound, and I have long ago lost the
brashness of youth to jump to conclusions,
however valid. Mark my joy then, at finding a
pair of purplerumped sunbirds among a flock of
other small garden birds chivvying our cat and
her kitten, just outside my window. I took the
opportunity to observe the female carefully. She
had a considerably shorter and finer bill, showed
a more distinctive yellow on the throat and
breast, and had a black tail with rather
prominent white ends to the outer feathers. This
was in clear contrast to the female purple sunbird
which looked more leggy and off colour. But
these finer points are not to be relied on when
birds are flitting around among tall trees. It is
the variation of the call, that is very distinct and
draws attention. This morning I saw the
zeylonica feeding on my kadamb tree.
The question is — have we been
overlooking this sunbird, which I doubt, or is
the species expanding its range? An ecological
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study of the requirements of the various species
of Nectarinia would provide very interesting
reasons for species sharing wide tracts as do
asiatica, zeylonica and lotenia, with the former
extending far beyond the other two. What factors
delineate the ranges of species otherwise
compatible?
To conclude, during an earlier visit to
Mumbai, I had examined the sunbird specimens
in the collection of the Society, and was surprised
to note that the female purplerumped sunbirds
had shorter and finer bills than the males!
October 10, 1998 LAVKUMAR KHACHER
646, Vastunirman,
Gandhinagar 382 023,
Gujarat,
India.
15. NESTING OF PLOCEUS PHILIPPINUS (LINN.) AND PLOCEUS MANYAR
(HORSFIELD) ON MANGROVE AND ASSOCIATED SPECIES IN
CORINGA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, ANDHRA PRADESH
AtCoringa Wildlife Sanctuary (c. 15° 17'N
& 76° 26' E), Andhra Pradesh, we have recorded
nests (both complete and incomplete ‘practice
nests’) of the baya weaver bird Ploceus
philippinus (Linn.) and streaked weaver bird
P. manyar (Horsfield) on mangrove and
associated species. Almost all the accessible
creeks and canals crisscrossing the sanctuary
were surveyed. In all, 72 nests of both types of
each species were recorded, of which 19 were
complete, and the rest incomplete ‘practice
nests’. Altogether, 5 species of nesting plants
were noted, which were Avicennia officinalis L.
— 12 complete and 3 incomplete nests of
P. philippinus ; Clerodendron inerme (L.) — 7
complete nests of P. manyar; Dalbergia horrida
(Dennst). — 6 and 16 incomplete nests of
P. philippinus and P. manyar respectively;
Acanthus ilicifolius L. — 18 and 6 incomplete
nests of P. philippinus and P. manyar
respectively; and Myrisosatchya wightiana (Nees
ex Steud.) Hk. f. — 4 incomplete nests of P. manyar.
It is interesting to note that all the complete
nests were observed in the creek near human
habitation, while the majority of incomplete
‘practice nests’ were observed far away, nearer
the sea front.
C. Srinivasulu acknowledges financial
assistance granted to him by the CSIR, New
Delhi.
November 2,1998 C. SRINIVASULU
V. VASUDEVA RAO
V.NAGULU
Wildlife Biology Section,
Department of Zoology,
Osmania University, Hyderabad 500 007,
Andhra Pradesh, India.
1 6. FIRST RECORD OF PSAMMOPHILUS BLANFORDANUS (STOLICZKA 1871)
(FAMILY: AGAMIDAE) FROM GUJARAT, INDIA
On December 8, 1998 at 1335 hrs, an
olive-brown lizard was observed on a large rock
along the dry bank of the Panam river (a tributary
of Mahi), near Kanjeta village, Ratanmahal
Wildlife Sanctuary (RWS), Panchmahal district
(20° 31'-22° 35' N, 74° ll'-74° 33' E). It was
identified with the help of diagnostic keys (Smith
1935) as Blanford’s rock agama lizard
(Psammophilus blanfordanus). In addition, two
specimens of the same species have been
collected from the rocky bed of the Terav river
(a tributary of the Narmada), near Mal-Samot
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
villages, Shoolpaneshwar Wildlife Sanctuary
(SWS), Bharuch district (21° 03' - 21° 59' N, 73°
05' - 74° 10' E).
This olive-brown lizard has a series of large
oval-shaped spots on each side of the back, which
are absent in the sub-adults. Marbled spotted
markings on tail, limbs and lateral body region.
Head pale brown and a black spot present on the
forehead. A dark stripe is present from the nasal
to the tympanum, on both sides of the head (BNHS
Regn. Nos. 1441 and 1442). The measurements
and other details are given in Table 1 .
Psammophilus blanfordanus is distributed
in the eastern part of central Gujarat, from SWS,
Bharuch district towards the northeast, through
the forests of Vadodara district (Nasavadi and
Chhota Udepur tehsil) and up to Ratanmahal
Wildlife Sanctuary, Panchmahal district of the
adjoining Madhya Pradesh.
Local tribals, call it sardo or kanchido.
The species is abundant in a few river valleys of
SWS and RWS. A few lizards are arboreal.
During the breeding season (April to August),
males perform courtship displays upon large tree
trunks 2-3 m high, similar to Calotes garden
lizards.
According to Smith (1935) and Khajuria
and Agrawal (1981), P. blanfordanus is
distributed in India, from Hoshangabad, Madhya
Pradesh to east Bihar and Orissa, Eastern Ghats,
and up to south Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala.
The present record from the eastern part of
central Gujarat is a range extension.
August 3, 1999 RAJU VYAS
Sayaji Bang Zoo,
Vadodara 390 018,
Gujarat, India.
Table 1
MORPHOMETRIC DATA AND PHOLIDOSIS OF BLANFORD’S ROCK AGAMA
{PSAMMOPHILUS BLANFORDANUS), GUJARAT STATE.
Details Ratanmahal Wildlife Sanctuary Shoolpaneshwar Wildlife Sanctuary
Specimen BNHS Regn No.
1441
1442
.
Snout to vent length
4.8
7.0
5.5
Tail length
9.2
7.0 tail cut
10.7
Total body length
14.0
14.0+
16.2
Head length
1.2
1.2
1.3
Head width
1.1
1.6
1.05
A-G
2.08
3.9
2.09
ED
0.4
0.6
0.5
E-N
0.6
0.6
0.5
E-S
0.8
0.9
0.8
E-E
0.55
0.6
0.4
EL
0.30
0.35
0.30
Upper labial R/L
10/11
10/10
11/11
Lower labial R/L
10/11
10/10
10/11
Rostral covered with no. of scales
4
6
4
Snout covered scales
Keeled/unequal
Keeled/unequal
Keeled/unequal
Back scales
Keeled
Keeled
Keeled
Belly scales
Keeled
Keeled
Keeled
No. of scale rows on body
109
100
85
Hind limb digits lamellale,
11:15:18:20:13
8:15:21:24:17
10:17:20:23:17
Two separated spines on the back of the head
Present
Present
Present
Sex
Not determined
Male
Female
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
References
Khajurja, H. & H.P. Agrawal (1981): Studies on wildlife Smith, M. A. (1935): Fauna of British India. Reptilia and
of Narbada valley - Part II. Reptilia. Zool. Surv. Amphibia. Vol. II Sauria. Taylor and Francis,
India. 78(1): 21-36. London. 440 pp.
17. REDISCOVERY OF TWO RARE TYPHLOPIDS, TYPHLOPS THURSTONI
BOETTGER, 1890 AND T. TINDALLI SMITH, 1943 FROM KERALA
( With four text-figures )
This is a report of the rediscovery of
Typhlops thurstoni Boettger, 1890 and T. tindalli
Smith, 1943 from Trichur district, Kerala state,
southwestern India, during a herpetological
survey conducted by the author.
Typhlops thurstoni Boettger, 1890
It was known from only four specimens in
the Natural History Museum, London and one
with the Zoological Survey of India (Murthy
1993). Unfortunately, collection details
pertaining to the latter are not available.
Originally described from the Nilgiris, it was
reported from Trichur (Wall 1919) and from
Wynaad in Kerala (Procter 1924). The present
specimen was collected on August 1 8, 1997, from
a coconut grove with laterite soil in Chavakkad,
28 km west of Trichur.
T. thurstoni is a small, active snake, light
brown dorsally and pale brown ventrally, except
for the snout and anal region which are whitish.
Figs 1 & 2: Head scalation
Typhlops thurstoni Boettger
The margins of the scales are darker. The snout
is rounded and strongly projecting. The rostral
is 2/3rd as broad as the head, and extends to the
level of the ocular. The central portion of the
rostral is studded with glands and is dark brown.
The large nasal is incompletely divided by a
suture starting from the second labial and ending
just beyond the nostril. The anterior nasal is less
than half the size of the posterior nasal. The
prefrontal is half as broad as the head, in full
contact with rostral, separating the posterior
nasals. The frontal is as large as prefrontal, both
are double the size of other body scales. Ocular
and preocular shorter than nasal, the latter almost
as broad as posterior nasal and in contact with
prefrontal, frontal and supraocular, besides ocular
and posterior nasal. Supraocular twice as broad
as long. Smith (1943) stated that eyes are not
‘distinguishable’ in this species, but in the
present specimen, they are distinguishable. The
tail ends in a point. There are 20 scales around
the body, the diameter of which is contained 7 1
times in the total length. Transverse scale rows:
481. Length: 215 mm. Diameter: 3 mm. The
pholidosis is shown in Figs 1 and 2.
The present finding from Chavakkad was
made 73 years after the last record by Procter
(1924) from Wynaad.
Typhlops tindalli Smith 1943
T. tindalli was first reported fromNilambur
in Kerala by Boulenger (1893) who identified
434
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
the specimen as T. thurstoni. Smith (1943)
examined the three syntypes in the Natural
History Museum, London and described them as
T. tindalli. He also referred to tindalli Wall’s
(1919) specimen collected from Pilloor in
Nilgiris and described as T. beddomei. Wall’s
specimen is lost and T. tindalli is known from
the syntypes. Three more examples are with the
Zoological Survey of India (Murthy 1993), but
collection details are not available.
T. tindalli were collected from
Kunnamkulam, 24 km west of Trichur on
December 18, 1996 and between July 15 and 19,
1997, one from a kitchen garden and four from
coconut plantations with laterite soil. These
specimens are uniformly pink in colour, except
for the snout and anal regions, which are whitish.
In preservative, the colour turned yellowish-
white. They are not as active or hardy as
T. thurstoni. The snout is rounded and strongly
projecting. The rostral is 3/5 th the width of the
head, posteriorly triangular, scarcely reaching
halfway to the level of the ocular. The nasal is
incompletely divided into anterior and posterior
nasals by a suture passing from the preocular to
beyond the nostrils, almost touching the rostral
Anterior and posterior nasals both in contact with
preocular. The posterior nasal is four times as
large as anterior nasal and in contact with its
fellow behind the rostral. Ocular is less than half
the size of the preocular and touching 3rd and
4th labials, but not wedged between them.
Supraocular twice as broad as long. Prefrontal
and frontal only marginally larger than body
scales. Eyes small, but distinguishable while
alive, though Smith (1943) stated that eyes are
not distinguishable. The tip of the tail is slightly
swollen and rounded without a spine. There are
1 8 scales around the body, the diameter of which
is contained 60-70 times in the total length.
Transverse scale rows: 364 to 395. The pholidosis
is shown in Figs 3 and 4 and measurements in
Table 1.
Figs 3 & 4: Head scalation
Typhlops tindalli Smith
Table 1
MEASUREMENTS OF TYPHLOPS TINDALLI
No.
1
2
3
4
5
Total Length
183
180
178
163
125
Diameter (mm)
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.0
Transverse Scale Rows
395
398
386
378
364
The present record has been made after
an interval of 80 years since the last recorded
finding by Wall (1919). While the earlier
observations were from mountain areas such as
Nilambur and Pillur in Nilgiris, at 600 m above
msl, this record is an extension of range to the
coastal plains of Kerala, over 100 km west of
the known range.
The specimens of T. tindalli and
T. thurstoni have been deposited in the Museum
of the Wildlife Biology Dept, Kerala Forest
Research Institute, Peechi, Kerala. Regn Nos
KFRI (WL) R598 and R599, respectively.
Acknowledgements
I thank the Kerala Forest Department (WL)
for permission and Joseph Thomas, C.P. Shaji
and P.S. Easa, KFRI, for assistance.
August 17, 2000 V.P. AJIT
Panikaseril, T.K.S. Puram,
Kodungallur,
Kerala 680 664, India.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
435
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
References
Boettger, O. (1890): Neue Schlange aus Ostindien. Bench
Senck. nat. Ges. 1890 : 297-298.
Boulenger, G.A. (1893): Catalogue of the Snakes in the
British Museum (Natural History), Vol. 1 , containing
the families Typhlopidae, Glauconiidae, Boidae,
Hypsidae, Uropeltidae, Xenopeltidae and Colubridae.
British Museum (Natural History), London, xiii + 448
pp. Plates I-XXVIII.
Murthy, T.S.N. (1993): Rare Snakes of India. The Snake
25: 135-140.
Procter, J.B. (1924): Description of a new Typhlops from
S. India and notes on Brachiophidium and
Platyplectmms. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. (9) xiii: 139-142.
Smith, M.A. (1943): The Fauna of British India, Ceylon
and Burma, including the whole of the Indo-Chinese
region. Vol. 111. Serpentes. Taylor and Francis,
London, xii +583 pp. + 1 map.
Wall. F. (1919): Notes on a collection of snakes made in
the Nilgiri Hills and the adjacent Wynaad. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 26: 552-584.
18. AMPHIBIAN FAUNA OF KUDREMUKH NATIONAL PARK,
WESTERN GHATS, INDIA
In spite of the pivotal role played by
amphibians in the trophic dynamics of various
ecosystems, they have not been paid due
attention in most biodiversity and ecological
studies, especially in national parks and
sanctuaries, where scientific studies are focussed
on larger animals. India possesses a wide
network of more than 69 national parks and 392
sanctuaries, covering about 4% of her
geographical area (Nair 1996). However,
amphibian studies have been done in a few
sanctuaries and national parks only (Pillai and
Pattabiraman 1991; Ray and Tilak 1994, Dueti
1996, George et al. 1996, Radhakrishnan 1996,
Zacharias and Bhardwaj 1996). The Kudremukh
National Park (KNP) (13° 10'-13° 26' N; 75° 5'-
75° 10' E) is located in the central Western Ghats
and covers Chickmagalur and Udupi districts
of Karnataka. With a total area of 6,000 sq. km,
the Park encompasses steep, densely forested
slopes to gently undulating hills, with an average
altitude of 1,000 m above msl), covers dense
evergreen montane vegetation, shola forests,
lowland forests and grasslands. A large number
of streams, three major rivers, namely Tunga,
Bhadra and Netravathi and their tributaries
water the terrain. The Park is known for its thick
and undisturbed vegetation, but the biotic
information is largely restricted to its floristic
composition (Pascal 1988) and a few reports of
large animals. Daniels (1992) detailed
amphibian distribution in the Western Ghats,
but an extensive amphibian fauna of KNP is not
available. Hence, we present this checklist of
amphibians, compiled from the results of the
survey of Kerekatte, Gangamoola, Kadambi,
Bhagavathi Forest, Malleswara and Naravi
regions of KNP during 1996-99.
All possible habitats of the study area
during premonsoon (February to May), monsoon
(June to September) and postmonsoon (October
to January) were surveyed in all three years.
The amphibians were identified in the field,
and the species confirmed with the taxo-
nomic keys of Boulenger (1890, 1920), Parker
(1934), Taylor (1968), Daniel (1963, 1975),
Daniel and Sekar (1989), as well as the latest
field guides of Daniels (1997), and Bhatta
(1998). Specimens were compared with those
in the collection of the Zoological Survey of
India, Southern Regional Station, Chennai.
Overall, 26 species belonging to 4 families of
Anura and 2 families of Apoda were recorded.
Voucher specimens have been deposited in the
Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai. The
list of amphibian species encountered, their
number (N) in the sample and mean SVL ±sd.,
of the present study, are as follows:
436
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Class: AMPHIBIA
Order: G YMN OPHION A
I. Family: lchthyophidae
Genus: Ichthyophis Fitzinger, 1826
I. Ichthyophis beddomei Peters, 1879
Habitat: Semi-aquatic, on the margins of
seepage stream under thick forest canopy.
N=ll; Mean Total Length ±sd: 209.4
±37.68 mm; Range: 178.5-253.0 mm.
2. 1. bombayensis Taylor, 1960
Habitat: Near the seepage stream under
thick litter mat and organic mulch.
N=2; Mean SVL ±sd: 345.5 ±149.5 mm;
Range: 198.0-495 mm.
II. Family: Caecilidae
Genus: Gegeneophis Peters, 1879
3. Gegeneophis camosus beddomei 1870
Habitat: Semi-aquatic, beneath the boulder
on the margin of a forest swamp in the forest.
N= 1; SVL 204 mm.
Order: ANURA
I. Family: Rhacophoridae
Genus: Rhacophorus Kuhl and Van
Hasselt, 1822
4. Rhacophorus malabaricus Jerdon, 1870
Habitat: Arboreal, recorded in the thick
leafy crown of bushes near a stream.
N=2; Mean SVL ±sd: 76.75 ±6.60 mm;
Range: 72-86 mm.
Genus: Philautus Gistel, 1848
5. Philautus femoralis Gunther, 1864
Habitat: Arboreal, bush dwelling.
N=l; SVL 19.50 mm.
6. P. charius Rao, 1937
Habitat: Recorded among forest floor litter.
N=6; Mean SVL ±sd: 20.25 ±1.41 mm;
Range: 17.5-21.5 mm.
7. P. leucorhinus Lichtenstein & Martens,
1856
Habitat: Arboreal, bush dwelling.
N=2; Mean SVL ±sd: 30.5 ±2.83 mm;
Range: 28.5-32.5 mm
8. P. glandulosus Jerdon, 1853
Habitat: Arboreal, collected from the bark.
N=2; Mean SVL ±sd: 28.25 ±0.35 mm;
Range: 28.0-28.5 mm.
II. Family: Bufonidae
Genus: Bufo Linnaeus, 1758
9. Bufo melanostictus Schneider, 1799
Habitat: Grassland on the periphery of the
shola forests.
N=3; Mean SVL ±sd: 66.34 ±3.3 mm;
Range: 67-78 mm.
10. B. beddomei Gunther, 1875
Habitat: Collected from the organic mulch
on the floor of thick forest.
N=4; Mean SVL ±sd: 38.5 ±3.2 mm;
Range: 34-43 mm.
III. Family: Microhylidae
Genus: Microhyla Tschudi 1838
1 1 . Microhyla ornata Dumeril & Bibron,
1841
Habitat: Semi-aquatic margins of paddy
fields.
N=4; Mean SVL ±sd: 18.7 ±1.94 mm;
Range: 16.5-21.0 mm.
IV. Family: Ranidae
Genus: Rana Linnaeus, 1758
12. Rana (Limnonectes) limnocharis Boie
in Wiegmann, 1835
Habitat: Semi-aquatic, margins of the
seepage stream, swamps associated with grass
in open places.
N=6; Mean SVL ±sd: 34.5 ±4.03 mm;
Range: 29-42 mm.
13. R. (Occidozyga) cyanophlyctis
(Schneider, 1799)
Habitat: Aquatic, lentic waterbodies.
N=9 (8 were sub-adults). Mean SVL ±sd:
22.05 ±10.07 mm; Range: 10.5-47 mm.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC 2000
437
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
14. R. (Limnonectes) keralensis Dubois,
1980
Habitat: Semi-aquatic, margins of
watercourse.
N=4; Mean SVL ±sd; 57.0 ±10.3 mm;
Range: 47-72 mm.
15 . R. aurantiaca Boulenger, 1 904
Habitat: Bush dwelling near the swamp.
N=2; Mean SVL ±sd: 33.0 ±2.9 mm;
Range: 31-35 mm.
16. R. curtipes Jerdon, 1853
Habitat: Forest floor.
N=2; Mean SVL ±sd: 72 ±7.07 mm;
Range: 67-77 mm.
17. R. (Indirana) semipalmata Boulenger,
1882
Habitat: Leaf litter and organic mulch on
the margins of streams.
N=2; Mean SVL ±sd: 37 ±1.42 mm;
Range: 36-38 mm.
18. R. temporalis Gunther, 1864
Habitat: Semi-aquatic, margins of
waterbodies.
N=3; Mean SVL ±sd: 52.4 ±5.3 mm;
Range: 46.5-57 mm.
19. R. (Indirana) beddomii Gunther, 1875
Habitat: Forest floor with thick, moist
organic litter.
N=3; Mean SVL ±sd: 52.33 ±8.5 mm;
Range: 44-61 mm.
20. R. (Limnonectes) tigerina Daudin,
1803
Habitat: Paddy field.
N=l; SVL 149 mm.
21. if. malabarica (Bibr.) Tschudi, 1838
Habitat: Forest-litter dwelling.
N=2; Mean SVL ±sd: 62.5 ±3.5 mm;
Range: 59-69 mm.
Genus: Tomopterna Dumeril & Bibron,
1841
22. Tomopterna (Sphaerotheca)
rufescens Jerdon, 1854
Habitat: Along with grasses, in the litter
and near decaying wood.
N=6; Mean SVL ±sd: 35.34 ±8.5 mm;
Range: 31-40 mm.
23. T. (Sphaerotheca) breviceps
Schneider, 1799
Habitat: Forest floor.
N=4; Mean SVL ±sd: 44 ±5.6 mm; Range:
38-53 mm.
Genus: Nyctibatrachus Boulenger, 1882
24. Nyctibatrachus major Boulenger,
1882
Habitat: Aquatic, seepage stream in the
forest.
N=6; Mean SVL ±sd: 55.16 ±3.97 mm;
Range: 49-60 mm.
25. N. aliciae Inger et al., 1984
Habitat: Aquatic, seepage stream under
thick canopy in the forest.
N=6; Mean SVL ±sd: 22.25 ±0.987 mm;
Range: 20.5-23 mm.
Genus: Micrixalus Boulenger, 1888
26. Micrixalus saxicola Jerdon, 1853
Habitat: Aquatic, margins of seepage
stream under thick forest canopy.
N=3; Mean SVL ±sd: 27.3 ±2.08 mm;
Range: 25-29 mm.
Among these 26 amphibians, 20 species
were found to be endemic to the Western Ghats.
Amphibian diversity has been well documented
for the rest of the Western Ghats and India (Inger
and Dutta, 1986; Molur and Walker, 1998).
However, the actual diversity is always greater
than the known (Inger and Dutta 1986).
Comparison of species diversity of KNP with
the adjoining Sringeri region (Krishnamurthy
and Katre 1993) reveals the occurrence of
Gegeneophis carnosus, Nyctibatrachus aliciae,
Philautus femoralis, P. charius, Micrixalus
saxicola and Tomoptera breviceps in KNP,
apart from those recorded for Sringeri region.
438
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3). DEC 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
The occurrence of a large number of endemic
species in KNP reflects the availability of
congenial habitats and the possibility of
more new amphibian species in future
expeditions.
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr. M.S. Ravichandran,
Zoological Survey of India, Southern Regional
Station, Chennai, for confirming the identifica-
tions, and Mr. M.B. Nataraj, Mr. Chandrashekar
Dixit, Sri. J.C.B.M. College, Sringeri and the
staff of Karnataka State Forest Department
(Wildlife Wing), Kudremukh for assistance in
Refer
Bhatta, G.K. (1998): A field guide to the caecilians of the
Western Ghats, India. J. Biosciences 23(1): 73-85.
Molur, S. & S. Walker (Eds) (1998): Biodiversity
Conservation Prioritisation Project (BCPP) India,
Endangered species project: Conservation Assessment
and Management Plan: Amphibians of India. Zoo
Outreach Organisation - CBSG India, pp. 102.
Boulenger, G.A. (1890): Fauna of British India including
Ceylon and Burma: Reptilia and Batrachia. London,
pp. 432-541.
Boulenger, G.A. (1920): A monograph of South Asian,
Papuan, Melanesian and Australian frogs of the genus
Rana. Rec. Indian. Mus. 20: 1-226.
Daniel, J.C. (1963): Field guide to the amphibians of
Western India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60: 415-438
& 690-702.
Daniel, J.C. (1975): Field guide to the amphibians of
western India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72: 506-522.
Daniel, J.C. & A.G. Sekar (1989): Field guide to the
amphibians of western India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
86: 180-202.
Daniels, R.J.R. (1992): Geographical distribution pattern
of amphibians in Western Ghats, India.
J. Biogeography 19: 521-529.
Daniels, R.J.R. (1997): A field guide to the frogs and toads
of the Western Ghats, India, Part II. Cobra 28: 1-24.
Deuti, K. (1996): Ecological Studies on the Amphibians
recorded from Bethuadahari Wildlife Sanctuary, Nadia
District, West Bengal. Zoo ’s Print XI (5): 4-5.
George, S., J.M. Samuel & V.S. Josekumar (1996): Survey
of the amphibian fauna of Thattekad Bird Sanctuary,
field trips. SVK thanks the Dept of Science and
Technology, Govt of India for Research Project
No. SP/SO/C-39/97.
May 23, 2000 S.V. KRISHNAMURTHY
Dept of Environmental Science,
Kuvempu University, Jnana Sahyadri,
Shakaraghatta 577 451
Shimoga district,
Karnataka, India.
S.A. HUSSAIN
Biodiversity Initiative Trust,
“Basera”, Amar Alva Road, Monkey Stand,
Mangalore 575 001,
Karnataka, India.
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Kerala. Zoo ’s Print XI (5): 7-8.
Inger, R.F. & S.K. Dutta (1986): An overview of
amphibian fauna of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
83: 134-146.
Krishnamurthy, S.V. & K. Shakunthala (1993):
Amphibian fauna of Sringeri Taluk (Chickamagalur
Dist: Karnataka). J. Indian Inst. Sci. 73: 443-452.
Nair, S.M. (1996): Endangered animals of India and their
conservation. National Book Trust, New Delhi.
Parker, H.W. (1934): A monograph of the frogs of the
family Mycrohylidae. Oxford University Press, British
Museum, London. Pp. 208.
Pascal, J.P. (1988): Wet evergreen forests of the Western
Ghats of India. French Institute, Pondicherry. Pp. 345.
Pillai, R.S. & R. Pattabiraman (1 991 ): Amphibians from
Sabarigiri forest, Western Ghats, Kerala, including a
new species of Micrixalus. Rec. zool. Surv. India 86(2):
383-390.
Radhakrishnan, C. (1996): Amphibians from Aralam
Wildlife Sanctuary, Western Ghats, Kerala, Zoo ’s Print
XI(5): 1 & 6.
Ray, P. & R.Tilak (1994): Amphibia, Fauna conservation
area 5: Rajaji National Park. Zoological Survey of India.
Pp. 55-75.
Taylor, E.H. (1968): The caecilians of the world. A
taxonomic review. University of Kansas Press,
Lawrence, pp 848.
Zacharias, V.J. & A.K. Bhardwaj (1 996): A Preliminary
list of amphibian fauna of Periyar Tiger Reserve,
Thekkady, Kerala, South India. Indian Forester 122(3) :
247-249.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC 2000
439
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
19. ON A REPORT OF PRISTOLEPIS MARGINA TUS JERDON (PERCIFORMES :
PERCOIDEI : NANDIDAE) FROM KARNATAKA
The genus Pristolepis , belonging to the
monotypic subfamily Pristolepidinae, Class
Pisces, is restricted to a small area of peninsular
India, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, and part of the
Malay Archipelago (Nelson 1994). The type
species marginatus Jerdon (1848) was described
from the rivers of Mannantoddy in North
Malabar, Kerala. Two species described
subsequently from Travancore, namely
tetracanthus Gunther, 1862 and malabaricus
Gunther, 1854 and a subspecies from Wynaad,
malabaricus malabaricus Silas, are all
considered synonyms of marginatus (Talwar
1991, Menon in press). The only other species
of this genus reported from India is fasciatus
Bleeker, originally collected from the rivers of
Borneo and is more widely distributed as follows:
India: Kerala: Vembanad Lake; Myanmar,
Thailand, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo and
Java. Menon (op. cit.) remarks that the
occurrence of this species in Kerala needs
confirmation.
Pristolepis marginatus was, until recently
(Yadav, 1996), considered endemic to the Kerala
part of the Western Ghats. It has since been
collected from the Indira Gandhi Wildlife
Sanctuary, Anamalai Hills, Tamil Nadu. Biju et
al. (1999) reported its occurrence in the adjoining
Parambikulam Reserve Forest in Kerala. During
a faunistic survey of Karnataka, districts Dakshin
Kannada, Kodagu and Biligiri Rangaswamy
Wildlife Sanctuary, by a team from the Zoological
Survey of India, 1 1 specimens varying in length
from 41 to 91 mm SL were collected from
altitudes ranging from 90 to 670 m.
Material collected: 1 ex. 41 mm SL, Regn
No. F. 6052, 28. xi. 1998, 640 m above msl,
Haringi; 1 ex. 71 mm, F. 6072, 8.xii.l998, 670 m
above msl, Gundiya; 1 ex. 18 mm, ll.iv.1999,
90 m above msl, Anjeri (Kollur); 5 exs 85 mm,
F. 6106, 12.iv.1999, Bavanagare; 3 exs, 43 mm,
F. 61 16, 13.iv.1999, 90m, Sowbamika river. (All
specimens bear three anal spines).
This is the first report of the species from
the hill ranges of Karnataka. Its known northern
limit is the Krishna drainage of Western Ghats
(Yadav, op. cit.). There is a possibility of it being
present in other waterbodies along the Western
Ghats. The occurrence of this genus with
Malayan affinities in different areas of the
Western Ghats is of ichthyological significance
(Hora 1944, Menon 1973).
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr. J.R.B. Alfred, Director, ZSI,
and Dr P.T. Cherian, Addnl Director and OIC,
Southern Regional Station, Chennai, for
facilities. We specially thank Dr. A.G.K. Menon
and once again Dr. P.T. Cherian for valuable
suggestions, and Dr. G. Thirumalai, under whose
leadership the specimens were collected.
February 7, 2000 K. REMA DEVI
T.J. INDRA
M.S. RAVICHANDRAN
M.B. RAGHUNATHAN
Zoological Survey of India,
Southern Regional Station,
100, Santhome High Road,
Chennai 600 028,
Tamil Nadu, India.
References
Biju, C.R., K. Raju Thomas & C.R. Ajithkumar (1999): Hora, S.L. (1944): On the Malayan affinities of the
Fishes of Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, Palakkad freshwater fish fauna of Peninsular India, and its
District, Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 96(1): 82-87. bearing on the probable age of the Garo-Rajmahal Gap.
440
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Pro. nat. Inst. Soc. India 10(4): 423-439.
Menon, A.G.K. (1973): Origin of the freshwater fish fauna
of India. Curr. Sci. 42(16): 553-556.
Menon, A.G.K. (in press): Checklist of freshwater fishes
of India. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.
Nelson, J.S. (1994): Fishes of the World. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. 600 pp.
Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland Fishes, Vols.
I & II, Oxford & IBH Publ. Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi,
India. 1097 pp.
Yadav, B.E. (1996): New record of the Percoid fish,
Pristolepis marginata Jerdon from Krishna drainage
system of Western Ghats, India. Geobios New Reports
15(1): 55-56.
20. ON A REPORT OF TETRAODON {MONOTRETUS) TRAVANCORICUS, FROM
SOUTH KANARA, KARNATAKA, INDIA
Two freshwater tetraodontid fishes have
been described from India, namely Tetraodon
cutcutia (Hamilton), found in the fresh waters
of Bihar, Orissa, Bengal, and Assam, attaining
a length of 9 cm and Tetraodon {Monotretus)
travancoricus described from Pamba river,
Central Travancore by Hora and Nair (1941),
hardly attaining a length of 2.5 cm. After more
than four decades, these miniature globe fishes
were collected and reported from the coastal belts
of Kerala, namely the Vembanad Lake, Kottayam
by Ahlander ( 1 998). Part of the collections made
by him from Kottayam and adjacent districts of
Kerala deposited in the Reserve collections of
Zoological Survey of India, Southern Regional
Station (ZSI, SRS), Chennai, included
T. travancoricus from three localities, namely
Meenachil river, Vembanad lake and from near
Kottayam Railway Station (Rema Devi et al.
1996). A report on the sexual dimorphism of the
species from Pudukkad, Trichur, Kerala was
made by Inasu (1993). Occurrence in the
Chalakudi, Periyar and Kechery rivers, Kerala
was reported by Biju et al. (1999). Subsequently
it was found further north in Karimpuzha, a
tributary of Chaliyar river (north of the Palghat
gap) by Lai Mohan (in press). The present record
of these tiny tetraodontids far inland, from the
waters of the evergreen forests of Western Ghats
of South Kanara, is of ichthyological
significance.
The collections were made during a survey
by ZSI, SRS. The 10 specimens range in length
from 10.00-18.5 mm SL, RegnNo.F. 5845, from
around Mavincar, Dakshin Kannada, at 50 m
above msl, 13.iv.1999, coll. G. Thirumalai.
Other Material: 3 exs 14.5-20.00 mm SL,
F.1364, Feb-Mar 1988, Shertallai, Kerala,
V.C.R.C., Shertallai; 4 exs 15.5-19.5 mm SL,
F. 5323, Karimpuzha, 22.i.l997, R.S. Lalmohan;
16 exs F.6005, 17.iv.1990, Vembanad lake, coll.
Eric & Suzz.
Description
D.8(4) or 9(6); P.17(2) or 18(8); A.8(7) or
9(3); C 1/7(3), 8(6), 9(l)/2.
Morphometric characters are presented in
Table 1. The proportions of the biometric
characters of the specimens from Karnataka fall
within the range given in the original description
by Hora and Nair, 1941. However, though similar
in position, the blotches on the body are smaller
and have a restricted spread.
Remarks: Recently, a new species
Carinotetraodon imitator was described from
Cochin, Kerala by Britz and Kottelat ( 1 999). The
genus Carinotetraodon is distinguished from
Tetraodon, in that the males of the former possess
conspicuous mid-dorsal and mid-ventral keels
on the skin during courtship, a character
supposedly absent in species of Tetraodon. C.
imitator is diagnosed by the presence of
numerous, additional, tiny spots interspersed
with larger blotches in females (vs. presence of
only larger blotches in Tetraodon); body
spination: a few slender pointed spines (vs. dense
coverage); and differences in certain osteological
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
441
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Table 1
MORPHOMETRICS OF T. TRA VANCORICUS FROM
DAKSHINA KANNADA N=10
Characters
Range
Mean
Total length/Head length
3.06-3.33
3.17
Standard length/Head length
2.36-2.54
2.43
Height of head/Head width
0.93-1.12
1.03
Head length/Height of head
0.97-1.13
1.08
Length of head/Head width
1.01-1.24
1.12
Body depth/Head length
0.89-1.08
0.96
Head length/Eye diameter
2.39-2.98
2.61
Inter orbital width/Eye diameter
0.93-1.13
1.04
Total length/Body depth
3.03-3.54
3.30
Standard length/Body depth
2.32-2.70
2.52
Caudal peduncle length/
Caudal peduncle height
1.04-1.42
1.23
Total length /Caudal peduncle
3.86-4.50
4.24
Gill opening to Dorsal fin /
Head length
0.81-1.03
0.89
features. However, Britz and Kottelat (op. cit.)
were not sure about the type locality, presuming
it to be Cochin, based on the reports of aquarium
traders. Though the new species is described as
having some differences in the colour pattern (the
presence of smaller spots in addition to large
blotches) it remains to be seen whether this is
only a colour variant. No two specimens of
T. travancoricus studied by us showed the same
colour pattern, as also mentioned by Hora and
Nair (1941). From a comparative study of the
colour pattern in specimens collected from
various drainages along the west coast, we feel
that colour is a highly variable character and
cannot be relied on as a specific taxonomic
feature. The meristic characters of the new
species overlap with those of T. travancoricus ,
as evident from Table 2. Besides, the
morphometric proportions of C. imitator fall
within the range of T. travancoricus.
We feel that C. imitator as a species distinct
from T. travancoricus deserves a second look,
based on detailed studies of the secondary sexual
characters, osteology and intraspecific colour
variation within travancoricus.
The present study extends the range of
Table 2
COMPARISON OF MERISTIC CHARACTERS OF
T. TRA VANCORICUS FROM DIFFERENT LOCALITIES
Loc.
Pamba Dakshin Kannada
(Type Locality) (Present
(after Hora & Collections)
Nair, 1941)
Cochin, Kerala
C. imitator Britz &
Kottelat, 1 999
D.
7-8
8-9
9-10
P.
16-17
17-18
17-19
A.
8
8-9
8-9
C.
9
10-12
11
distribution of the little known freshwater puffer
fish Tetraodon travancoricus along a major
stretch of the coastal belt of the Western Ghats,
in several rivers which drain into the Arabian
Sea, both above and below the Palghat Gap. It is
probable that the species occurs in several other
river systems, but escapes the attention of
collectors due to its very small size. Further
studies on the migratory habits, salinity tolerance
and breeding behaviour of this euryhaline species
should be carried out to ascertain the specific
nature of colour pattern and spination, and to
understand the origin and distribution of the
species in the various habitats ranging from
coastal brackish waters to the upper reaches of
freshwater rivers.
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr. J.R.B. Alfred, Director, ZSI
and Dr. P.T. Cherian, Addnl Director and OIC,
S.R.S., for facilities. We also thank Dr.
Thirumalai, under whose leadership the
specimens were collected. Our special thanks to
Dr. P.T. Cherian for critically going through the
paper and for valuable suggestions.
February 2, 2000 K. REMA DEVI
T.J. INDRA
M.B. RAGHUNATHAN
Southern Regional Station,
Zoological Survey of India,
100, Santhome High Road,
Chennai 600 028, Tamil Nadu, India.
442
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
References
Ahlander, Erik ( 1 988): Monotreta travancorica -en rund
och mycket liten fisk. Fauna Och Flora 5: 208-2 1 1 .
Biju. C.R., K. Raju Thomas & C.R. Ajithkumar (1999):
Occurrence of Tetraodon travancoricus (Hora and
Nair) in the Chalakudy, Periyar and Kechery rivers,
Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 96(1): 161.
Britz, R. & M. Kottelat (1999): Carinotetraodon
imitator, a new freshwater puffer fish from India
(Teleostei: Tetraodonti formes). J. South. Asian Nat.
Hist. 4(1): 39-47, 9 fig.
Hora, S.L. & K.K. Nair (1941): Notes on the fishes in the
Indian Museum XLI, New records of fresh water
fish from Travancore. Rec. Indian Mus. XLIII(3):
387-393.
Inasu, N.D. (1993): Sexual dimorphism of a freshwater
puffer fish, Tetraodon (Monotretus) travancoricus
Hora and Nair, collected from Trichur district,
Central Kerala, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 90: 523-
524.
Rema Devi, K., T.J. Indra & K.J. Emily amma ( 1 996): On
the fish collections from Kerala, deposited in
Southern Regional Station, Zoological Survey of
India by NRM Stockholm. Rec. zool. Surv. India
95(3-4): 129-146.
2 1 . FISH FAUNA OF IDUKKI AND NEYYAR WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES
SOUTHERN KERALA, INDIA
Kerala state, though small, has 44 rivers,
and a large number of dams have been
constructed across many rivers in order to use
the water for irrigation and hydroelectric projects.
These dams are mostly in the forests, hence their
catchment areas have to be protected. Keeping
this in mind, forests around many reservoirs of
dams have been constituted as wildlife
sanctuaries. Such sanctuaries are intended to
ensure preservation of natural conditions
necessary to protect nationally significant
species, biotic communities or physical features
of the environment (Basha 1997).
The freshwater fish fauna studies of
sanctuaries and national parks in southern Kerala
have gained the attention of various researchers
in the past, of which several studies were
conducted in the Periyar Tiger Reserve (PTR).
Raj (1941a, b) described three new fish from
Periyar lake, namely Lepidopygopsis typus,
Barbus ( Puntius ) ophicephalus and Barbus
(Puntius) micropogon periyarensis. Chacko
(1948) listed 35 species of fishes from Periyar
lake (PTR), and according to him mahseer (Tor
khudree) is the commonest fish in the lake. Indra
and Rema Devi (1990) collected 19 species from
Thekkady Wildlife Reserve (PTR). Arun et al.
(1996) recorded six species in addition to
Chacko’s (1948) list. Menon and Jacob (1996)
described a new Cyprinid fish Crossocheilus
periyarensis from PTR. Zacharias et al. ( 1 996)
collected 35 species from PTR. Very recently,
Zacharias and Minimol (1999) reported
Nemacheilus menoni as a new species from PTR.
Fish fauna studies of Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary
were carried out by Easa and Shaji (1996) and
Raju Thomas et al. (1999a). Recently Biju et al.
(1999) recorded 40 fish species from the
Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary. Ichthyofaunal
studies of the Eravikulam National Park were
undertaken by Raju Thomas et al.( 1999b). The
present study gives information on the status and
distribution of fishes in the Idukki and Neyyar
Wildlife Sanctuaries.
Idukki Wildlife Sanctuary is situated in
Idukki district above the Idukki arch dam (9°
45'-9° 55' N; 76° 50’-77° 05' E). The Sanctuary
is drained by Periyar river and its tributary
Cheruthoni river. Idukki reservoir is formed by
the construction of three dams across Periyar and
Cheruthoni river. Cherian (1990) studied the
impact of reduction in the water flow below the
Idukki dams, in the Periyar river. Detailed studies
conducted by Kurup (1983) on the dead
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
443
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
specimens from these waters in 1980-83 revealed Peppara WLS (north) and Agasthya Vanam
that the fishes had died due to the high levels of Biological Park, Thiruvananthapuram district,
toxicity in the water. The state boundaries of the Sanctuary are the
Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary is the Mundanthurai and Kalakkad Sanctuaries in
southernmost protected area of Kerala (8° 30'- Tamil Nadu (Nair 1991). This Sanctuary is
8° 37 N, 77° 8'-77° 17' E). It is very near to drained by the Neyyar river and its tributaries.
Table 1 Table 1 ( contd)
FISHES COLLECTED FROM IDUKKI NEYYAR FISHES COLLECTED FROM IDUKKI NEYYAR
WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES AND THEIR ABUNDANCE WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES AND THEIR ABUNDANCE
S.No. Species Idukki Neyyar
1.
I. Family: Anguillidae
Anguilla bengalensis (Gray)
++
+
2.
II. Family: Cyprinidae
Catlacatla (Ham.)
++
++
3.
Cyprinus carpio communis Linn.
+++
++
4.
Hypselobarbus curmuca (Ham.)
+++
-
5.
H. kurali Menon & Rema Devi
++
++
6.
Labeo rohita (Ham.)
++
++
7.
Barbodes carnaticus (Jerdon)
++
++
8.
B. sarana subnasutus (Val.)
++
++
9.
Puntius amphibius (Val.)
+++
+++
10.
P. arulius (Jerdon)
-
+++
11.
P.filamentosus (Val.)
+++
+++
12.
P. melanampyx (Day)
++
++
13.
P. ticto (Ham.)
+++
-
14.
Tor khudree (Sykes)
+++
+++
15.
Salmostoma boopis (Day)
-
++
16.
Barilius bakeri Day
++
+++
17.
B. gatensis (Val.)
++
++
18.
Danio aequipinnatus (McClelland)
+++
++
19.
D. malabaricus (Jerdon)
-
+++
20.
Parluciosoma daniconius (Ham.)
++++
+++
21.
Garra mullya (Sykes)
+++
+++
22.
III. Family: Balitoridae
Bhavania australis (Jerdon)
++
++
23.
Noemacheilus guentheri Day
++
++
24.
N. triangularis Day
++
++
25.
IV. Family: Cobitidae
Lepidocephalus thermalis (Val.)
-
++
26.
V. Family: Bagridae
Horabagrus brachysoma (Gunther)
+
27.
Mystus armatus (Day)
+++
++
28.
M. malabaricus (Jerdon)
-
++
29.
M. oculatus (Val.)
+++
++
30.
M. vittatus (Bloch)
+
-
S.No. Species
Idukki
Neyyar
32.
VII. Family: Heteropneustidae
Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch)
+
-
33.
VIII. Family: Siluridae
Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch)
++
++
34.
Wallago attu (Schneider)
++
++
35.
IX. Family: Sisoridae
Glyptothorax madraspatanus (Day)
+
-
36.
X. Family: Belonidae
Xenentodon cancila (Ham.)
++
++
37.
XI. Family: Aplocheilidae
Aplocheilus lineatus (Val.)
+++
+++
38.
XII. Family: Nandidae
Pristolepis marginata Jerdon
-
++
39.
XIII. Family: Ambassidae
Parambassis thomassi (Day)
+++
++
40.
XIV. Family: Cichlidae
Etroplus maculatus (Bloch)
+++
+++
41.
E. suratensis (Bloch)
++
+
42.
Oreochromis mossambica (Peters)
+++
+++
43.
XV. Family: Gobidae
Glossogobius giuris (Ham.)
++
-
44.
XVI. Family: Channidae
Channa marulius (Ham.)
++
+
45.
C. orientalis (Bloch & Schneider)
+
+
46.
XVII. Family: Mastacembelidae
Mastacembelus armatus (Lacepede)
++
++
Total
40
38
VI. Family: Claridae (+) _ yery rare> (++) = Rare, (+++) = Common, (++++)
3 1 Clanas batrachus Linn . + - Very common, (- ) = Absent
444
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Samples were collected from October 1998
to April 1999 to study the status and distribution
of fish fauna. Sampling was done using cast nets,
hooks and a modified form of cast net for small
fish. The specimens were preserved in 10%
formalin.
A total of 40 species belonging to 16
families and 29 genera were collected from the
Idukki Sanctuary, and 38 species belonging to
13 families and 26 genera were recorded from
the Neyyar Sanctuary (Table 1). Three culture
fishes were collected from both the sanctuaries.
Most of the species are widely distributed in
Kerala and other parts of the Western Ghats. The
following eight species were collected only from
the Idukki WLS: Hypselobarbus curmuca,
Puntius ticto, Horabagrus brachysoma, Mystus
vittatus, Clarias batrachus, Heteropneustes
fossilis, Glyptothorax madraspatanus and
Glossogobius giuris. A few species were collected
only from the Neyyar WLS, namely Puntius
arulius, Danio malabaricus, Salmostoma boopis,
Lepidocephalus thermalis, Pristolepis marginata
and Mystus malabaricus. The abundance of these
species is given in Table I. Hypselobarbus
curmuca was seen abundantly in Idukki WLS
and Tor khudree was collected in plenty from
Idukki reservoir and below Meenmutty
waterfalls, Neyyar WLS. Glyptothorax
madraspatanus, Clarias batrachus,
Heteropneustes fossilis, Horabagrus
brachysoma, Channa orientalis and Mystus
vittatus were found to be very rare in the Idukki
WLS. In Neyyar WLS, the very rare species were
Refer
Arun, L.K., C.P. Shaji & P.S. Easa (1 996): Record of new
fishes from Periyar Tiger Reserve. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 93(1): \ 03.
Basha, S.C. (1997): Management and Conservation of
Wildlife. The Natural Resources of Kerala. Eds K.
Balachandran Thampi, N.M. Nayar and C.S. Nair.
World Wide Fund for Nature-India,
Thiruvananthapuram.
Bijtj, C.R., K. Raju Thomas & C.R. Ajithkumar (1999):
Anguilla bengalensis, Etroplus suratensis,
Channa marulius and C. orientalis.
Acknowledgements
We thank the US Fish and Wildlife Service
and the Ministry of Environment and Forests,
Govt of India, for sponsoring the project on
“Ecology of hill streams of the Western Ghats
with special reference to fish community”.
Dr. K. Rema Devi, Scientist, Zoological Survey
of India, Chennai for confirming our
identifications. Mr. J.C. Daniel, Hon. Secretary,
Dr. Asad R. Rahmani, Director and Dr. B.F.
Chhapgar of the BNHS, for encouragement.
Dr. R. Sugathan, Thattekad Bird Sanctuary,
Kerala, Drs. S. Alagarajan, Ranjit Manakadan,
S. Balachandran and G. Maheswaran of the
BNHS, and the forest officials of Idukki and
Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuaries for help.
April 26, 2000 K. RAJU THOMAS
C.R. BIJU*
C.R. AJITHKUMAR
Bombay Natural History Society,
Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.
^Present Address: Chemmandaparambil (H),
P.O. Chembuchira 680 684,
Thrissur (Dt), Kerala, India.
M. JOHN GEORGE
Mar Thoma College for Women,
Perumbavoor, Ernakulam,
Kerala 683542, India.
EN C E S
Fishes of Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary,
Palakkad District, Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
96(1): 82-87.
Chacko, P.I. (1948): Development of fisheries of the Periyar
lake. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48: 191-192.
Cherjan, P.T. (1990): Studies on some ecological impacts
of the reduction in the flow of water below the
Idukki dams, in the Periyar river in Kerala Rec.
zool. Surv. India 86(3 & 4): 437-442.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
445
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Easa, P.S. & C.P. Shaji (1996): Freshwater fishes of
Pambar river, Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93(2): 304 306.
Indra, T.J. & K. Rema Devi (1990): On a small collection
offish from Thekkady Wildlife Sanctuary, Western
Ghats. Rec. zool. Surv. India. 87(3): 249-257.
Kurup, M.B. (1983): Studies on the systematics and biology
of the fishes of the Vembanad lake. Ph.D. Thesis,
University of Cochin, Kochi. Pp. 300.
Menon, A.G.K. & P.C. Jacob (1996): Crossocheilus
periyarensis a new Cyprinid fish from Thanikudy
(Thekkady), Kerala, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 93(1): 62-64.
Nair, S.C. (1991): The Southern Western Ghats — a
biodiversity conservation plan, INTACH, 'New
Delhi.
Raj, S.B. (1941a): A new genus of Schizothoracine fish
from Travancore, south India. Rec. Ind. Mus. 43:
209-214.
Raj, S.B. (1941b): Two new Cyprinid fishes from
Travancore, south India, with remarks on Barbus
(Puntius) micropogon Cuv. & Val. Rec. Ind. Mus.
43: 375-386.
Raju Thomas, K., C.R. Biju & C.R. Ajithkumar( 1999a):
Additions to the fish fauna of Pambar river, Kerala.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 96(2): 330-332.
Raju Thomas, K., C.R. Biju., C.R. Ajithkumar & M. John
George (1999b): Ichthyofauna of Eravikulam
National Park with notes on trout culture in
Rajamalai, Munnar, Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 96(2): 199-202.
Zacharias, V.J., A.K. Bhardwaj & P.C. Jacob ( 1 996): Fish
fauna of Periyar Tiger Reserve J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 93(1): 39-43.
Zacharias, V.J. & K.C. Minimol (1999): Noemacheilus
menoni, a new species of fish from Malappara,
Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist .
Soc. 96(2): 288-290.
22. ECTEINASCIDIA SLUITERI HERDMAN (PEROPHORIDAE), A NEW RECORD
OF A COLONIAL ASCIDIAN (PROCHORDATA) TO INDIAN WATERS
( With one text-figure)
A colonial ascidian, Ecteinascidia sluiteri
Herdman 1906 is reported for the first time from
Ervadi coast of Tamil Nadu, India. So far only 4
species of the genus Ecteinascidia are reported
from India (Das 1938; Renganathan 1984, 1986;
Renganathan and Krishnaswamy 1985). Of
these, Ecteinascidia bombayensis was reported
from the west coast, whereas the other three
species, Ecteinascidia garstangi, E. imperfecta,
E. krishnani were from the east coast. The
specimen studied has been deposited in the
National Collections of the Zoological Survey of
India, Chennai (AS. 16).
Ecteinascidia sluiteri Herdman 1906
Occurrence and distribution: A few
individuals of a damaged colony attached to
calcrete stones were collected from the littoral
zone of the Ervadi coast (9° IP N; 78° 43’ E).
This species has been previously reported from
Sri Lanka (Herdman 1906), Palau Islands
(Tokioka 1950), Singapore (Millar 1975) and
Australia (Kott 1985).
Synonymy: Ecteinascidia sluiteri
Herdman, 1906, p. 300. Tokioka, 1950, p. 126.
Millar, 1975, p. 267. Kott, 1985, p. 98.
Taxonomy: Class: Ascidiacea, Order:
Enterogona, Suborder: Phlebobranchia, Family:
Perophoridae, Genus: Ecteinascidia, Species:
sluiteri.
Description: The colony consists of
upright zooids, 0.7 x 0.3 cm, attached by a short
stalk from the posteroventral comer of the body
to a common basal mat of stolons. Branchial
aperture terminal and atrial aperture subterminal.
Both apertures on very low, conical siphons and
have inconspicuous lobes. Test transparent, firm,
naked Zooids are pale green in life, but become
colourless in preservative.
The body wall is thin, delicate,
vascularised, and the arrangement of muscles is
peculiar, in that the transverse muscles are short
and grouped to form three longitudinal bands
(one mid-dorsal and two lateral). On the left side,
the band does not extend beyond the gut loop.
Circular and longitudinal muscles are present
446
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Fig. 1: Ecteinascidia sluiteri Zooid from
left side showing gut loop, gonads and musculature
in the siphons. The dorsal tubercle has a simple
opening. The dorsal lamina has small triangular
languets with a membrane connecting them. 14
rows of 35-40 stigmata in each row. 2 stigmata
in a mesh. Oesophagus at the posterior end of
the branchial sac, leads to a large spherical
stomach with oblique ridges. A gastrointestinal
duct is present. The mid-intestine curves dorsally
and forms a wide open loop. Rectum extends
anteriorly at right angles to the descending limb
of the intestine. The anterior pole of the gut loop
is at the level of the 1 0th transverse vessel. The
Refer
Das, S.M. (1938): On Ecteinascidia bombayensis n. sp.
(A new Ascidian from Bombay). Proc. Ind. Acad.
Sci. 8: 295-300.
Herdman, W.A. (1906): Report on the Tunicata. Ceylon
Pearl Oyster Fisheries Suppl. rept. 39: 295-348.
Kott, P. (1985): The Australian Ascidiacea. Part I -
Phlebobranchia and Stolidobranchia. Mem. Qd. Mus.
23: 1-440.
anus has a smooth border and lies near the 8th
transverse vessel. Gonads are present in the gut
loop. The male follicles are pear-shaped,
arranged behind the small rounded ovary. No
larva was observed (Fig. 1).
Ecteinascidia species are distinguished by
the position of the apertures, body musculature,
gut loop, and arrangement of gonads. The present
species differs from those species of Ecteinascidia
which have already been reported from India in
the presence of three groups of longitudinal
muscle bands rather than a continuous band as
is present in the latter. The Indian specimen
agrees well with the description of Ecteinascidia
sluiteri from Sri Lanka, Singapore, Palau Islands
and Australia in almost all characters, but differs
from the Australian specimens in having only
14 rows of stigma rather than 22, as reported by
Kott (1985).
Acknowledgements
I thank Dr. T.K. Renganathan, Retd
Professor of Zoology, V.O. Chidambaram
College, Tuticorin, for constant guidance and the
UGC, New Delhi for financial assistance.
July 26, 1 999 V.K. MEENAKSHI
Department of Zoology,
A. PC. Mahalaxmi College for Women,
Tuticorin 628 002, Tamil Nadu, India.
S. VENUGOPAL
Department of Atomic Energy,
Heavy Water Plant,
Tuticorin 628 007, Tamil Nadu, India.
iNCES
Millar, R.H. (1975): Ascidians from the Indo-West Pacific
region in the Zoological Museum, Copenhagen
(Tunicata: Ascidiacea). Steenstrupia 3: 205-336.
Renganathan, T.K. (1984): Ecteinascidia garstangi Sluiter
1 898 — a colonial ascidian not hitherto recorded from
India. Geobios New Reports 3: 54-55.
Renganathan, T.K. (1986): Studies on the ascidians of
South India. Ph.D. thesis, Madurai Kamaraj
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
447
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
University, Madurai. 14: 38-4 1 .
Renganathan, T.K. & S. Krishnaswamy (1985): Some Tokioka, T. (1950): Ascidians from the Palau Islands I.
ascidians from Indian waters. Indian J. Mar. Sci., Pubis. Seto. mar. biol. lab. 1: 1 15-150.
23. ADDITIONAL NOTES ON A HIMALAYAN SATYRID
DALLACHA HYAGRIVA (MOORE) FAMILY SATYRID AE, LEPIDOPTERA
( With five text-figures)
The type species hyagriva Moore of the
monotypic genus Dallacha Moore (Smith,
1993; Varshney, 1994) has been reported
earlier under the genus Erebia Dalman by
Bingham (1905), Evans (1932), Talbot (1947),
Wynter-Blyth (1957) and Mani (1986). Its
distribution has been recorded from various
Himalayan localities, such as Darjeeling,
Kulu, Mussoorie, Simla and Kumaon
(Marshall and de Niceville, 1883; Mackinnon
and de Niceville, 1897; Evans, 1932; Wynter-
Blyth, 1940; Talbot, 1947). Marshall and
de Niceville (loc. cit.) have also stated that
“ hyagriva Moore was originally described
from Darjeeling, but we have only as yet
received it from the Western Himalayas, where
it does not appear to be common.” During
the present survey, we could collect it from
certain new localities, such as Kumarsain
(2 males, 1 female, 8.ix.l992), Taklech,
Rampur (1 female, 1 2.ix. 1 992), and Chowai
(1 male, 13.ix. 1992) in the Western Himalaya.
An illustrated account of the male and female
genitalia is given below in order to facilitate
diagnosis.
Brown Argus Dallacha hyagriva (Moore)
Moore, 1857, in Horsfield & Moore,
Cat., Lep. Inds. E. India Co. 1: 236.
Male genitalia: (Figs 1-4): Uncus longer
than tegumen, curved ventrally, distal end
sharply pointed; brachia more than half the
length of uncus, finely pointed distally; tegumen
broad; appendices angulares moderately long
with distal end narrow; vinculum longer than
tegumen; saccus short, tubular, rounded; valva
broader in the middle, costa distinct with a
smaller costal process, sacculus long and
narrow, distal end concave, the latter beset with
eight dorsal spines present near distal end;
aedeagus long and broad, curved in the middle,
subzone smaller than suprazone, ductus entering
dorsad.
Female genitalia: (Fig. 5) Corpus
bursae globular, membranous; signa paired
and moderately long, represented by parallel
scobinate patches, lying longitudinally in the
posterior half of corpus bursae; ductus bursae
shorter than corpus bursae, membranous;
lamella antevaginalis with rectangular, plate-
like, conspicuous central process, below which
another slightly longer process, the latter
lateral, broad, flap-like membranous; lamella
postvaginalis inconspicuous; apophyses
anterioris missing, apophyses posterioris
reduced; papilla analis elongated, pilose.
Length of forewing Male: 21.0 mm
Female: 25.0 mm
The present study shows that the male
genitalia of the type species hyagriva Moore
of the genus Dallacha Moore are different
from the type species Erebia ligea Linn, and
Ypthima huebneri Kirby of the genera Erebia
Dalman and Ypthima Huebner respectively
(Warren, 1930, 1936; Rose and Sharma, 1999)
under which it has earlier been synonymised
by Talbot (1947) and Bingham (1905)
448
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Figs 1-5: Dallacha hyagriva (Moore): 1. Male genitalia (lateral view) 2. Valva (inner view)
3. Aedeagus (lateral view) 4. Aedeagus (dorsal view) 5. Female genitalia (ventral view).
respectively. In the former species, the uncus
is longer than the tegumen, and convex in
shape and the same is straight and shorter than
the tegumen in the latter species. In ligea
Linn., the brachial area is parallel to the
uncus and the aedeagus is straight or slightly
undulating, whereas the brachia do not run
parallel to the uncus and the aedeagus is
strongly curved in hyagriva Moore. In
huebneri Kirby, the brachia are completely
wanting and the aedeagus rather weakly
curved. The female genitalia of D. hyagriva
(Moore) and Y. huebneri Kirby are also
different from each other. In Y. huebneri
the signum is absent, and the genital plate is
very complex, whereas the paired signa are
present and the genital plate is simple in
D. hyagriva.
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(3). DEC 2000
449
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Abbreviations
AED: Aedeagus, APX.ANG: Appendix
angularis, BR: Brachium, CO: Costa, CRP. BU:
Corpus bursae, DU.BU: Ductus bursae, DU.EJ:
Ductus ejaculatorius, LA.AV: Lamella
antevaginalis, O.B: Ostium bursae, P.A.: Papilla
analis, PO.APO: Apophysis posterioris, SA:
Saccus, SBZ: Subzonal portion of aedeagus, SIG:
Signum, SL: Sacculus, SPZ: Suprazonal portion
of aedeagus, TEG: Tegumen, UN: Uncus, VESf:
Vinculum, VLV: Valva.
Acknowledgement
Dr. H.S. Rose thanks the Indian Council
of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, Govt of
India, for funds.
October 15, 1999 NARENDER SHARMA
H.S. ROSE
Department of Zoology,
Punjabi University,
Patiala 147 002, Punjab, India.
References
Bingham, C.T. (1905): The fauna of British India, including
Ceylon and Burma. Butterflies. Vol. I. Taylor and
Francis, London: 1-511, Pis. 1-10.
Evans, W.H. (1932): The Identification of Indian
Butterflies. 2nd edn. Madras, Bombay Natural History
Society x+454 pp, 32 pis, 9 figs.
Rose, H.S. & N. Sharma (1999): Butterflies of the genus
Ypthima Huebner from North-West India (Lepidoptera
: Rhopalocera). Zoos' Print 14 (9): 97-1 15.
Mackinnon, P.W. & L. de Niceville (1897): List of
Butterflies from Musoorie and Dun Valley. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc., 11: 205-221, 368-389, 585-603.
Mani, M.S. (1986): Butterflies of the Himalaya. Oxford &
IBH Publ. Co. New Delhi: x+1 8 1 .
Marshall, G.F.L. & L. de Niceville (1883): The
Butterflies of India, Burma and Ceylon. A descriptive
handbook of all the known species of Rhopalocerous
Lepidoptera inhabiting that region, with notices of allied
species occurring in the neighbouring countries along
the border. Vol. 1 . Calcutta Central Press: 327 pp.
24. AN AGGREGATION OF BUTTERFLI]
Butterflies are known to be closely
associated with plants. They are attracted to
flowers for nectar, and their developmental stages
are often spent on them. Barnes (1939) observed
that a large number of danaid butterflies are
attracted to Cynoglossum denticulatum at
Biligirirangan hills, Karnataka. Wynter-Blyth
(1957) reported that butterflies are attracted to
the trees of Bridelia in the Himalaya, and to
Smith, C. ( 1 993): Illustrated checklist of Nepal ’s Butterflies.
Craftsman Press, Bangkok: 1-127.
Talbot, G. (1947): The fauna of British India, including
Ceylon and Burma. Butterflies. Vol. 2. Taylor and
Francis, London: 506 pp.
Varshney, R.K. (1994): Index Rhopalocera Indica. Part
III. Genera of Butterflies from India and neighbouring
countries [Lepidoptera: (B) Satyridae, Nymphalidae,
Libytheidae and Riodinidae] . Oriental Ins. 28: 1 5 1 - 1 98
Warren, B.C.S. (1930): A definition of the Satyrid genera
Erebia, Callerebia, Paralasa and Erebomorpha. En.t.
/tec. 42: 103-107.
Warren, B.C.S. (1936): Monograph of the genus Erebia.
British Museum, (Natural History) London.
Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1940): A list of the butterflies of
the Shimla Hills. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 41(4): 716-
741.
Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian
region. Bombay Natural History Society xx+523 pp.
72 pis.
; AT HYDERABAD, ANDHRA PRADESH
Poinsettia and Moringa at lower elevations.
Amladi (1975) noted that danaid butterflies are
attracted to Heliotropium indicum plants.
Chaturvedi and Satheesan (1979) published a
note on the congregation of butterflies on
Crotalaria retusa in the Western Ghats, while
Larsen (1986) observed a dry season aggregation
of these insects in Corbett National Park, Uttar
Pradesh. Subsequently Jafer, Mathew and
450
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Zacharias (1997) recorded an aggregation
of butterflies on Crotalaria peduncularis and
H. indicum plants in the Periyar Tiger Reserve,
Kerala. This paper reports butterfly aggregation
seen in the Nehru Zoological Park, Hyderabad,
Andhra Pradesh.
On April 26, 1998, an exceptionally hot
day in Hyderabad, with the ambient temperature
hovering around 40 °C, the author visited the
Nehru Zoological Park, about 10 km southwest
of Hyderabad city. The Park has a land area of
c. 300 ha, with lush green cover, dominated by
trees like Cassia auriculata , Albizia lebbeck,
Azadirachta indica, and Polyalthia pendula. At
about 1 000 hrs, near the guest house on the bank
of the Mir Alam Tank, an extraordinarily large
number of butterflies was observed.
The butterflies were not confined to any
particular plant species, though the majority of
them — mainly species like Euploea core
(Common Crow) and Tirumala limniace (Blue
Tiger) showed affinity to the small white flowered
Cestrum diurnum (day jasmine) which is
common in the area. The other plants growing
nearby like Tecoma starts (yellow elder),
Catharanthus roseus (Madagascar periwinkle),
Nerium indicum (oleander), Euphorbia
tithymoides, Clerodendrum inerme, Lantana
camara, Annona squamosa, Bougainvillea sp.
were also partially covered by these butterflies.
In addition to these butterflies, Pachliopta
hector (Crimson Rose), Papilio polytes
(Common Mormon) Papilio clytia dissimilis
(Common Mime), Danaus genutia (Striped
Tiger), Danaus chrysippus (Plain Tiger),
Hypolimnas bolina (Great Eggfly), and Eurema
hecabe (Common Grass Yellow) were also
observed in the congregation. These butterflies
were resting on the leaves, flowers and stems of
the plants.
Incidentally, on May 3 1 , at around 1030 hrs,
the author observed similar swarms flying around
the plants in the area. At that time, the Cestrum
diurnum plant bore fruit, and most other plants
were without leaves. It was noticed that honey
bees (Apis dorsata), ants, wasps and metallic
green Scutellarid bugs (Chrysocoris sp.) also
congregate on the leaves, along with butterflies.
It can be assumed that the cool and shady comer
of the garden, which is regularly sprinkled with
water by the zoo authorities during the summer,
attracted these insects. A list of the butterflies
seen during the two visits is given in Table 1.
Table 1
BUTTERFLIES OBSERVED IN THE AGGREGATION
Approximate Numbers
Butterfly Family/Species On On
26.iv.98 31.V.98
Papilionidae
Pachliopta hector (Linnaeus)
(Crimson Rose)
12
Papilio polytes polytes Linnaeus
(Common Mormon)
2
Papilio clytia f. dissimilis Linnaeus
(Common Mime)
4
_
Graphium agamemnon (Linnaeus)
(Tailed Jay)
_
2
Eurema hecabe (Linnaeus)
(Common Grass Yellow)
2
-
Danaidae
Danaus chrysippus (Linnaeus)
(Plain Tiger)
4
2
Danaus genutia (Cramer)
(Striped Tiger or Common Tiger)
8
3
Tirumala limniace Gmelin (Blue Tiger)
150
100
Euploea core (Cramer) (Common Crow)
200
150
Nymphalidae
Hypolimnas bolina Drury (Great Eggfly)
2 ?
3 ?
Subsequently, on April 9 and May 8, 1 999,
the author visited the same area, but no butterfly
species was observed.
Acknowledgements
I thank Dr. J.R.B. Alfred, Director,
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, Dr. P.T.
Cherian Addnl Director, ZSI, Chennai and
Dr. S.Z. Siddiqi, Officer-in-Charge, Freshwater
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
451
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Biological Station, ZSI, Hyderabad for facilities
and encouragement. I also thank Mr. V. V. Sivan,
Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute
of Science, Bangalore for identification of the
plant species.
Refer
Amladi, S.R. (1975): Danaid butterflies attracted to
Heliotropium indicum (Boraginaceae) an alkaloid
containing plant. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 72(2): 585-
587.
Barnes, E. ( 1 939): A curious habit of a Danaid Butterfly.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 41(2): 443.
Chaturvedi, N. & S.M. Satheesan (1979): Attraction of
butterflies to Crotalaria retusa (Papilionaceae) at
Khandala, Western Ghats. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,
76(3): 534-535.
Jafer Palot, M., G. Mathew & V.J. Zacharjas (1997):
December3, 1999 MUHAMED JAFER PALOT
Zoological Survey of India,
Freshwater Biological Station,
Hyderabad 500 020,
Andhra Pradesh, India.
iNCES
Butterflies of Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala (India).
In: Advances in Forestry Research in India (Ed. Ram
Prakash). International Book Distributors, Dehra
Dun, pp. 188-204.
Larsen, T.B. (1986): A dry season aggregation of Danaine
butterflies in Corbett National Park (Lepidoptera,
Nymphalidae, Danainae). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
83: 456-458.
Wynter-Blyth, M. A. (1957): Butterflies of the
Indian Region. Bombay Natural History Society,
Bombay.
25. NEW HOST PLANTS FOR TWO TROPICAL BUTTERFLIES
AT VISAKHAPATNAM, ANDHRA PRADESH
During our investigations on the life-
history strategies and larval performance of
various butterfly species distributed in the
environment of Visakhapatnam, a growing
industrial city, we have recorded new host plants
for the larvae of the Lemon Pansy Junonia
lemonias (Linn.), Family Nymphalidae and the
Common Yellow butterfly Terias hecabe (Linn.),
Family Pieridae.
J. lemonias was found to lay eggs on
Asystasia gangetica (Linn.) T. Anders
(Acanthaceae), and all the five larval stages were
found to feed on the leaves of A. gangetica. This
is a new host plant, the known species being
Nelsonia campestris, Asteracantha longifolia
(Acanthaceae), and Sida rhombifolia (Malvaceae)
(Wynter-Blyth 1957, butterflies of the Indian
region).
T. hecabe was observed to deposit eggs and
the larvae to feed on the leaves of Samanea saman
(Jacq.) Merril, Mimosa pudica (Linn.), M. torta
Roxb., and Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC.) Baker
ex Heyne (Caesalpiniaceae). Earlier, Wynter-Blyth
(1957) listed Cassia tora, C. fistula, Wagatea
spicata (Caesalpiniaceae), Pithecolobium dulce,
Albizzia sp. (Mimosaceae), and Sesbania aculeata
(Fabaceae) as the larval hosts of T. hecabe.
December 2 1 , 1 999 J.B. ATLURI
S.P. VENKATA RAMANA
C. SUBBA REDDI
Department of Botany,
Department of Environmental Sciences,
Andhra University,
Visakhapatnam 530 003,
Andhra Pradesh, India.
26. SOME FRESHWATER MOLLUSCS FROM EASTERN AND CENTRAL NEPAL
( With one text-figure)
Nepal is a Himalayan kingdom, situated 80° 00' and 88° 15' E. A perusal of the literature
between 26° 30' N and 30° 15' N and between shows a paucity of information on the molluscs
452
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Table 1
MOLLUSCAN SPECIES OF NEPAL WITH THEIR DISTRIBUTION IN DIFFERENT DISTRICTS
Family/Genus
Species
Form
Site of Collection
Jha
Mor
Sun
Sap
Ud
11
Kath
Lai
Dh
Vi VIP ARID AE
Bellamya
bengalensis
(Lamarck, 1822)
f. typica
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Bellamya
bengalensis
(Kobalt, 1909)
f. nepalensis
+
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
-
Bellamya
dissimilis
(Muller, 1774)
—
•
-
■
■
■
■
+
+
■
Thiaridae
Thiara
(Melanoides)
tuberculata
(Muller, 1774)
+
+
+
+
~
"
'
'
'
Thiara (I)
scraba
(Muller, 1774)
—
+
+
+
-
"
+
"
+
+
Thiara (Tarebia)
granifera
(Lamarck, 1822)
—
+
+
+
-
"
*
"
Brotia
costula
(Rafinesque 1833)
—
+
+
+
+
+
“
Paludomus (P)
blanfordiana
(Neville, 1877)
—
+
+
+
+
“
'
'
PlLIDAE
Pila
globosa
(Swainson, 1822)
+
+
'
Pila
theobaldi
(Henley, 1875)
—
*
+
+
”
“
'
‘
Lymnaedae
Lymnaea
(Pseudosuccinea)
acuminata
(Lamarck, 1 822)
f. typica
+
+
+
+
+
+
Lymnaea
luteola
(Lamarck, 1 822)
f. typica
+
+
+
+
+
Lymnaea
{Pseudosuccinea)
luteola
(Gray, 1822)
f. oval is
+
+
+
+
+
;
'
+
Lymnaea
{Pseudosuccinea)
luteola
(Deshayes, 1 834)
f. succinea
■
+
+
+
'
'
+
+
Lymnaea
{Galba)
andersoniana
(Neville, 1881)
—
■
■
■
“
+
+
'
Lymnaea
( Galba)
hookeri
Reeve, 1850
—
+
+
+
”
'
'
Planorbidae
Indoplanorbis
exustus
(Deshayes, 1 834)
"
+
+
+
+
+
Gyraulus
convexiusculus
(Hutton, 1849)
—
“
+
+
+
'
'
+
+
Physidae
Physa
acuta —
(Drapamaud, 1801)
+
+
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
453
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Table 1 ( contd .)
MOLLUSCAN SPECIES OF NEPAL WITH THEIR DISTRIBUTION IN DIFFERENT DISTRICTS
Family/Genus
Species Form
Site of Collection
Jha
Mor
Sun
Sap Ud 11
Kath
Lai Dh
Unionidae
Lamellidens
marginalis —
(Lamarck, 1819)
+
+
+
+ + +
-
-
Lamellidens
corrianus —
(Lea, 1834)
-
+
+
+
-
-
Lamellidens
jenkisianus subsp. —
obesa (Hanley &
Theobald, 1877)
+
+
'
■ ;
Amblemida
Parreysia
bonneaudi —
+
+
(Radiatula)
(Eydoux 1838)
Parreysia
caerulea
+
+
+
+
+
+
(Radiatula)
(Lea, 1831)
Sphaerium
indicum • —
(Deshayes, 1854)
-
-
-
-
+
+
Abbreviations: II - Ham, Jha - Jhapa (Mechi zone); Mor - Morang, Sun - Sunsari, Dh - Dhankuta (Koshi zone); Sap - Saptari,
Ud -Udayapur (Sagarmatha zone), Kath - Kathmandu, Lai - Lalitpur (Bagmati zone)
of Nepal. Godwin- Austen ( 1 9 1 0) and Majupuria
(1981-1982) have reported a few species of land
and freshwater molluscs collected from Nepal’s
Kathmandu valley. This paper presents a list of
the freshwater molluscs collected during a survey
of nine districts, representing four zones of
Nepal. The survey was initiated in 1993, to make
a comprehensive checklist of the molluscan
species of Nepal and continues to be done twice
a year, during August-September and December-
January.
The molluscs of 9 districts, namely Ilam,
Jhapa, Morang, Sunsari, Dhankuta, Saptari,
Udayapur, Lalitpur, and Kathmandu,
representing four zones (Mechi, Koshi,
Sagarmatha and Bagmati) of Nepal, were
collected from various waterbodies, such as
ponds, ditches, lakes, and channels (Table 1). A
nylon net was used to collect live molluscs from
water, while the dry shells were hand picked.
The colour and morphology of the fresh and dry
specimens along with their habitat and sites of
collection were recorded. Live specimens were
preserved in 5% formalin for further
identification. Preston (1915), Tonapi (1980),
and Subba Rao (1989) were used to identify the
specimens. Identifications were confirmed by the
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.
A total of 25 species of freshwater molluscs
were recorded in nine districts, of which 1 9 were
gastropods and 6 belonged to Bivalvia
(Pelecypoda). The molluscan species and their
collection sites are given in Fig. 1.
Of the 25 species in this collection, only 2,
namely Bellamya bengalensis f. nepalensis
(Kobalt 1909) and Lymnaea (Galba)
andersoniana (Neville 1881) have already been
reported from Nepal (Subba Rao, 1989).
Some of the species were abundant at some
sites, but rare or absent at others. This appeared
to be due to the diverse climatic and ecological
conditions of the collection sites. For instance,
Bellamya bengalensis f. nepalensis and Lymnaea
(Galba) andersoniana were abundant in Lalitpur
and Kathmandu, but not recorded in any other
area. Likewise, Bellamya dissimilis and
Bellamya bengalensis f. typica were abundant
in the ponds of Jhapa, Morang, Sunsari and
454
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Fig. 1 : Distribution of freshwater molluscs in the
eastern and central regions of Nepal.
Saptari (all in the Terai region), but they were
rare in Ilam and Dhankuta (all in hilly areas).
Physa acuta was recorded in Morang as well as
in Lalitpur district. Sphaerium indicum was
recorded only in Lalitpur district. However,
Refer
Godwin-Austen, H.H. (1910): Land and freshwater
Mollusca of India including south Arabia,
Baluchistan, Afganistan, Kashmir, Nepal, Burmah,
Pegu, Tenasserim., Malay Peninsula, Ceylon and
other islands of the Indian Ocean. Suppl. to
Theobald and Hanley’s Conchologia Indica, 2, pi.
xl, London.
Majupuria, T. C. (1981-82): Wild is beautiful: Introduction
to Fauna and Wildlife of Nepal. S. Devi, Gwalior,
India, pp. 507.
overlapping and uneven distribution of
molluscan fauna is common. As this report is
from a study area of nine districts of Nepal out
of a total of 75, nothing can be said conclusively
about their distribution. Further studies may
indicate their distributional trends. Three other
zones (Janakpur, Narayani and Gandaki),
covering 12 districts have already been surveyed
and the collection is being studied.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Director, Zoological Survey
of India, Calcutta, for the identification and
confirmation of our collection, and Dr. A. K.
Ghosh, Head, Dept of Zoology, P. G. Campus,
Biratnagar for encouragement. We also thank
Mr. Narayan Mani Jaisi, Ms. Neela Subba,
Mr. Dipendra Raj Subba and Mr. Shering Raj
Subba for co-operation and help during the
survey and collection.
September 9,1998 BHARAT R. SUBBA
Department of Zoology,
P. G. Campus. (T. U.),
P.O. Box No. 137,
Biratnagar, Nepal.
TAPAN K. GHOSH
P. G. Department Zoology,
T. M. Bhagalpur University,
Bhagalpur 812 007,
Madhya Pradesh, India.
ENCES
Preston, H. B. (1915): The Fauna of British India including
Ceylon and Burma, Mollusca (Freshwater
Gastropoda and Pelecypoda), Taylor and Francis,
London. Pp. i-xi + 244.
Subba Rao, N.V. (1989): Handbook of Freshwater
Molluscs of India, Publ. Zoological Survey of India,
Calcutta. Pp.289.
Tonapi, G.T. (1980): Freshwater animals of India (An
Ecological Approach). Oxford and IBH Publ. Co.
New Delhi. Pp. 341.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
455
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
27. AN INTERESTING METHOD OF CATCHING MARINE CRABS
( With one text figure)
While wanderings on the beaches of Hame,
Dabhol and Devgarh, in Ratnagiri in the Konkan
region of Maharashtra, I observed an interesting
starts decomposing, attracting the crabs. No
sooner than the crabs approach the pit and
attempt to reach the rotting flesh, they fall inside
>/ v. aw os.
100 cm
method of trapping marine crabs.
The trapper digs a small pitcher-shaped
pit with an opening of about 30 cm to 40 cm
diameter and about 1 m deep in sandy beaches,
mostly near mangroves (Fig. 1).
To attract the crabs, the ear of a butchered
goat or sheep is placed in each pit at the bottom,
fixed with a bamboo spike. With time the flesh
and get trapped.
The catch is collected by the trapper early
in the morning and taken to the market for sale.
October 1,1999 ARVIND BHAROS
B-101, Gayatrinagar,
PO Shankernagar,
Raipur 492 007, Madhya Pradesh, India.
28. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF LEEA MACROPHYLLA ROXB. (VITACEAE)
IN RAJASTHAN STATE
During a botanic exploration conducted
from August 24 to 25, 1 993, 1 observed a number
of Leea macrophylla plants between “Bhagya
Baori” (Bhagi Baori) and Sitamata temple in
Sitamata Wildlife Sanctuary, Chittorgarh district,
Rajasthan. Most of the plants were observed in
456
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
very moist and cool localities under the shade of
huge trees like Madhuca latifolia, Albizia
lebbeck, Terminalia bellirica, Tectona grandis
and Buchanania lanzan. The simple, cordate
leaves were exceptionally giant sized, and nearly
as broad as long. The second and third leaves
measured 69-72 x 60-69 cm across. The lower-
most and the uppermost leaves were smaller. As
many as 4-5 leaves were present on each main
stem. Remains of the stems from the previous
monsoon were also visible on many plants. This
species is known to the locals as “Hasti-kam”
i.e. elephant ears.
In the adjoining Udaipur district,
Rajasthan, three plants were observed near Taloi
village in Toma (I) Forest Block, Kotra Forest
Range. There it is called “Hathni” i.e. female
elephant, by the Bhils, a local tribe of the area.
Kotra, (situated in the Aravalli range) the second
locality of L. macrophylla, is nearly 250 km away
from the first locality i.e. Sitamata, which is at
the meeting point of the Aravalli and
the Vindhyan ranges. The presence of
L. macrophylla in Kotra Forest Range suggests
that this species may also be present in Jhadol,
Gogunda and Deola Forest Ranges of Udaipur
Refer
Mehta , M.R. (1979): Flora of Mount Abu (Vol. I). Ph.D.
Thesis, University of Jodhpur, Rajasthan.
Sharma, S. & B. Tiagi (1979): Flora of Northeast
Rajasthan. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi.
Singh, V. (1983): Flora of Banswara, Rajasthan. Botanical
district.
Study of the various floras of Rajasthan
(Mehta 1979, Sharma and Tiagi 1979, Singh
1983, Shetty and Singh 1983, 1987-93) reveals
that so far only two species of Leea, namely
L. edgeworthii and L. indica have been recorded
from Rajasthan and L. macrophylla is a new
addition to the flora of this state, hence worth
placing on record.
Acknowledgements
I thank Mr. U.M. Sahai, Conservator of
Forests, for work facilities, and Mr. P.R. Verma,
Mr. S.K. Pal, Mr. R.S. Shekhawat and Prof.
Mahesh Chandra Sharma for co-operation. I
thank Dr. P. Joshi, Scientist, TBGRI, Pacha
Palode, Thiruvananthapuram, for confirming the
identification.
December 4, 1998 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA
Range Forest Officer,
Aravalli Afforestation Project,
Jhadol 313 702,
Udaipur district,
Rajasthan, India.
NCES
Survey of India, Calcutta.
Shetty, B.V. & V.S. Singh (1983): Flora of Tonk district.
Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta.
Shetty, B.V. & V.S. Singh (1987-1 993): Flora of Rajasthan
(Vols. I-III), Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta.
29. ON A COLLECTION OF BAUHINIA ACUMINATA LINN.
(LEGUMINOSAE: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) FROM MYANMAR
(With one text-figure)
A collection of Bauhinia acuminata L.
from Myanmar (labelled “Katha district, near
Ziyatin Forest rest house, 800 ft (244 m),
2 1 .viii. 1915, C. Gilbert Rogers 994 — CAL”)
drew my special attention because of the
considerable length of the calyx-limb, which is
8.6 cm. The length of the calyx-limb of this
species from Myanmar and its nearby regions,
as given in or inferred from the revisionary and
recent floristic accounts, varies from 2-5 cm,
(Chen, Lingnan Sci. J. 18(4): 489. 1939; de Wit,
Reinwardtia 3(4): 394. 1956; Soe, Union Burma
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
457
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Fig. 1: Bauhinia acuminata Linn.: Calyx
After C. Gilbert Rogers - 994 CAL
J. Life Sci. 5: 310. 1972; Larsen & Larsen in
Aubreville & Leroy (eds.), FI. Cambodge, Laos
& Viet-nam 18: 156. 1980, in Smitinand &
Larsen (eds.), FI. Thailand 4(1): 13. 1984; Chen
in Chen (ed.), FI. Reipubl. Popul. Sin. 39: 153.
1988; Larsen & Larsen in Kalkman et al. (eds.),
FI. Males. 12(2): 445. 1996; Bandyopadhyay et
al. in FI. India 6 - in press). Further, the length
of the calyx-teeth, whenever recorded in the
above mentioned publications, was c. 3 mm but
in the relevant specimen from Myanmar, one of
the calyx-teeth measures 7 mm. The other four,
however, are 3-4 mm in length.
January 27, 1999 S. BANDYOPADHYAY
Botanical Survey of India,
P.O. Botanic Garden,
Howrah 111 103,
West Bengal, India.
30. ACHILLEA MILLEFOLIUM LINN. (ASTERACEAE) — A NEW RECORD
FOR KERALA STATE
Achillea millefolium L. (Asteraceae),
commonly known as yarrow, is found throughout
the temperate and boreal zones of the northern
hemisphere and to a lesser extent, the southern
hemisphere (Chandler et al. 1982). It grows
abundantly throughout America and Europe
(Falk et al. 1975). In India, it is common in the
Himalaya from Kashmir to Kumaon at 1,050-
3,000 m and is also seen growing in Bombay
and the Belgaon (=Belgaum) areas (Anonymous
1985). In South India, it is reported from Nilgiri
hills of Tamil Nadu (Henry et al. 1987). It is a
popular medicinal plant used as tonic, stomachic,
haemostatic, antispasmodic, antiseptic and
antihepatotoxic (Thakur et al. 1989, Anon. 1985,
Falk et al. 1975).
During a survey and collection of potential
medicinal plants in 1992, the plant was observed
along roadsides in Munnar forest areas of Idduki
district. Hence, this is the first report of its
occurrence from Kerala state.
Specimen Examined: Munnar Forest
Area; Idduki district; Kerala; Field No. CIMAP
7118.
FI. & Fr.: August- September.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Director CIMAP, Lucknow
for encouragement and work facilities, and Dr.
P. Daniel, BSI, Coimbatore for confirmation of
the taxon.
January 18, 1999 S.P. JAIN
J. SINGH
S.C. SINGH
Central Institute of Medicinal
and Aromatic Plants,
PO CIMAP, Lucknow 226 015,
Uttar Pradesh, India.
458
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
References
Anonymous ( 1 985): The Wealth of India. Raw Materials
(Revised) Publications and Information Directorate,
CSIR, New Delhi IA: 54-55.
Chandler, R.F., S.N. Hooker & M.J. Harvey (1982):
Ethnobotany and Phytochemistry of Yarrow Achillea
millefolium Compositae. Econ. Bot. 36: 203-223.
Falk, A.J., S.J. Smolenski, J. Baver & C.L. Bell (1 975):
Isolation and identification of three new flavones from
Achillea millefolium L. Journal of Pharmaceutical
Sciences 64(1 1): 1833-1842.
Henry, A.N., C.R. Kumar & V. Chitra (1987): Flora of
Tamil Nadu I. Analysis Vol. 1 . Botanical Survey of
India, Coimbatore.
Thakur, R.S., H.S. Puri & A. Hussain (1989): Major
medicinal plants of India. Central Institute of
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow.
3 1 . NEW RECORD OF PLANTS FROM ORISSA — II
Orissa is rich in plant wealth. The state
has 13 districts. Koraput district, a part of the
Eastern Ghats, lies on the border of Andhra
Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. Haines (1921 -25),
a pioneer explorer, collected very few plants from
this district, though it is floristically rich. Later
on, Mooney (1950) wrote on plants collected
mostly from Western Orissa. During an
ethnobotanical survey, the author collected some
plants from this district. On comparison with the
literature, and the specimens available at the
Central National Herbarium (CAL), 3 taxa
turned out to be new records for Orissa. Correct
nomenclature, brief diagnostic characters,
phenology, collection site, field numbers and
notes on the ecology and distribution of these
taxa have been recorded.
Stachytarpheta dichotoma (Ruiz & Pav.) Vahl
Enum. pi. 1: 207, 1804; forma albiflora
(Moldenke) Moldenke, Phytologia28: 102, 1974;
Moldenke in Dass. and Fosb., FI. Ceylon 4: 264,
1983; Stachytarpheta australis forma albiflora
Moldenke, Phytologia 3:63, 1949; Verbena
dichotoma Ruiz & Pav., FI. Peru and Chil. 1:23,
pi. 34b, 1798.
Family: Verbenaceae.
Annuals; branches dichotomous, obtusely
tetragonal, light grey; branchlets densely
pubescent. Leaves opposite, decussate; leaf
blades membraneous, elliptic to ovate, acute,
serrate along the margins, 1.5-6 cm long, 1-3
cm wide. Spikes terminal, slender, flaccid, 5-10
cm long, many flowered, black after drying.
Corolla hypocrateriformis, white. Filaments
white. Styles included, white.
FI. & Fr.: May-December.
Specimen examined: Similguda
(Koraput), coll. H.N. Subudhi, 8454
Remarks: Commonly grows along the
road side; has white flowers.
Distribution: Jamaica, Brazil, Argentina,
Sri Lanka, Malaya.
Ipomoea indica (Burm.) Merrill
Int. Rump. Herb. Amb. 495, 1917; Fosberg,
Micronesica2: 151, 1967; etinBot. Notiser 129:
35-38, 1976; Bhandari. FI. Ind. Desert. 228, f.
90, 1990; Convolvulus indicus Burm. in Rumph.
Herb. Amb. Index Universalis, 7: 6, 1755;
Ipomoea congesta R.Br., Prod. 485, 1810; Van
Ooststr., FI. Mai. 4: 465, 1953.
Family: Convolvulaceae.
Twiners, sometimes rooting at nodes,
densely pilose. Leaves broadly ovate to orbicular,
entire, 5-12 x 3-5 cm, cordate at base, shortly
acuminate; petioles 2-15 cm long. Retrosely
hairy. Inflorescence axillary peduncle, more or
less retrosely pilose. Flowers in umbellate cymes;
pedicels 2-8 mm long. Sepals herbaceous, 10-
20 cm long. Corolla funnel shaped, glabrous,
bright blue. Stamen and style included, with hairs
at base. Ovary glabrous.
Fl.-Fr.: June-October.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(3), DEC. 2000
459
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Specimen examined: Similguda
(Koraput), coll. H.N. Subudhi, 9597.
Remarks: Grows in wasteland and along
road sides.
Distribution: Circumtropical
Illustration: Bhandari, FI. Ind. Desert.
228. f.90, 1990.
Cyanotis arachnoidea
C.B. Clarke in A & C.DC.
Monogr. Phan. 3:250,1881; Matthew, FI.
Tam. Cam. 3:1661, 1983; Cyanotis pilosa (auct.
non. Roem. & Sch.) Wight. Icon. PI. Indo. Orient
t. 2083, 1853.
Family: Commelinaceae.
Semiprostrate herbs. Stems cottony or
cobwebby. Leaves lanceolate, chartaceous,
cobwebby; base obtuse; margin entire; apex
rounded. Cymes terminal or axillary, 2-5 in
clusters. Corolla blue. Stamens 6; filaments with
hairs, yellow; anthers oblong. Ovary pilose.
Fl.-Fr.: June-September.
Distribution: Indian peninsula, Sri Lanka.
Remarks: Grows on rocky hills and in
stone crevices.
Specimen examined: Similguda (Koraput)
coll. H.N. Subudhi. 8464.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Prof, and Head, P.G.
Department of Botany, Utkal University,
Bhubaneswar, for laboratory facilities, and the
Department of Science & Technology. Govt, of
Orissa, Bhubaneswar for financial aid.
June 26, 2000 H.N. SUBUDHI*
B.P. CHOUDHURY
B.C. ACHARYA
P. G. Department of Botany,
Utkal University,
Bhubaneswar 751 004, Orissa, India.
* Present Address :
Crop Improvement Division,
Central Rice Research Institute, (ICAR),
Cuttack 753 006, Orissa, India.
References
Haines, H.H. (1921-25): The Botany of Bihar and Orissa,
1 -6, London.
Mooney, H.F. (1950): Supplement to the Botany of Bihar
and Orissa, Catholic Press, Ranchi.
460
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